The Campaigns of Alexander

1. Alexander Secures His Rear Before Striking East

Starting from Amphipolis he entered the territory of what are known as the free Thracians, leaving Philippi and Mount Orbelus on his left; then, crossing the Nestus, he reached Mount Haemus, according to all accounts in ten days.

Crushing northern threats. Upon inheriting the throne, Alexander immediately faced unrest among the tribes bordering Macedonia. Recognizing the danger of leaving hostile forces behind, he swiftly campaigned against the Thracians, Triballians, and Illyrians. His rapid movements and innovative tactics, like using shields to deflect carts on Mount Haemus, neutralized these threats.

The Theban example. News of Alexander's death in Illyria sparked a revolt in Thebes, encouraged by Athenian orators. Alexander's incredibly fast march south surprised the rebels. Despite initial hesitation, the city was stormed, destroyed, and its inhabitants enslaved, serving as a brutal warning to other Greek states contemplating rebellion.

Securing Greek loyalty. After the destruction of Thebes, other Greek states, including Athens, quickly submitted. Alexander demanded the surrender of anti-Macedonian leaders but ultimately showed leniency, prioritizing his main goal: the invasion of Persia. This secured a fragile peace in Greece, allowing him to depart with confidence.

2. Swift Conquest of Asia Minor and Decisive Victory at Granicus

Without further delay he sent Parmenio to take command of the left wing, and himself moved over to the right.

Crossing the Hellespont. Leaving Antipater in charge of Greece, Alexander crossed into Asia with a relatively small but highly trained army. His symbolic acts at Troy, honoring Achilles and claiming Asia as a 'spear-won' prize, signaled his ambitious intent. The Persian satraps, ignoring Memnon's advice to avoid battle, decided to confront him at the Granicus River.

The Granicus battle. The Persians positioned their cavalry along the river bank, expecting to destroy the Macedonians as they landed. Alexander, leading the Companion cavalry on the right, launched a daring frontal assault across the river. Despite initial heavy losses, the Macedonian phalanx followed, and the superior training and longer spears of Alexander's forces overwhelmed the Persian cavalry.

Aftermath and expansion. The defeat of the Persian cavalry exposed their Greek mercenary infantry, who were subsequently surrounded and massacred. This victory opened Asia Minor to Alexander. Many Greek cities, previously under Persian control, welcomed him, leading to the rapid surrender of key centers like Sardis and Ephesus, where he restored democratic governments and abolished Persian tribute.

3. Darius's Tactical Blunder Leads to Crushing Defeat at Issus

Destiny had decreed that Macedon should wrest the sovereignty of Asia from Persia, as Persia once had wrested it from the Medes, and the Medes, in their turn, from the Assyrians.

Darius's strategic error. After securing Asia Minor, Alexander moved south towards Syria. Darius, commanding a massive army, chose to fight in the narrow coastal plain near Issus, a location that negated his overwhelming numerical superiority, particularly his vast cavalry force. Flattering courtiers convinced him Alexander was avoiding battle, leading him to advance into the unfavorable terrain.

Alexander's response. Learning Darius was in his rear, Alexander quickly reversed course. He deployed his army in the confined space, anchoring his flanks on the mountains and the sea. He personally led the decisive charge with the Companion cavalry on the right, targeting Darius's position in the center.

The battle and its outcome. The Macedonian phalanx struggled in the broken ground but held firm against the Greek mercenaries in the Persian center. Alexander's charge shattered the Persian left wing. Seeing his flank collapse and his personal guard threatened, Darius fled the field in his chariot, triggering a general rout. The Persian army suffered immense casualties in the chaotic retreat, and Alexander captured Darius's family and vast treasure.

4. Relentless Sieges Neutralize Persian Naval Power

However – dreams or no dreams – it was obvious enough that the siege of Tyre would be a tremendous undertaking.

Securing the coast. Following Issus, Alexander prioritized controlling the Mediterranean coast to eliminate the threat of the Persian fleet, which relied on Phoenician and Cypriot ports. Most Phoenician cities surrendered, but Tyre, an island fortress, refused him entry, forcing a difficult siege.

The siege of Tyre. The Tyrians were confident in their island position and strong walls. Alexander undertook the monumental task of building a mole across the half-mile strait, facing constant attacks from Tyrian ships and missiles from the walls. After initial setbacks, including the destruction of his first towers, Alexander assembled a large fleet from the now-friendly Phoenician and Cypriot cities, gaining naval superiority.

Fall of Tyre and Gaza. With his fleet blockading the harbors and siege engines battering the walls, Alexander finally breached Tyre's defenses after seven months. The city was taken by storm, its inhabitants massacred or enslaved. Next, the heavily fortified city of Gaza resisted fiercely but was also taken after a difficult siege, securing the route to Egypt. These victories effectively neutralized the Persian fleet.

5. Masterful Strategy and Cavalry Charge Win Gaugamela

The two armies were now close together. Darius and his picked troops were in full view.

March to Mesopotamia. After conquering Egypt and founding Alexandria, Alexander marched inland to confront Darius again. He advanced through Mesopotamia, seeking favorable terrain for a decisive battle. Darius, having learned from Issus, chose a wide plain near Gaugamela and even leveled the ground to facilitate his chariots and cavalry.

Alexander's battle plan. Facing a vastly larger Persian army (estimated in the hundreds of thousands), Alexander deployed his forces with reserves to guard against encirclement. He rejected advice for a night attack, preferring an open, decisive engagement. His plan involved a feigned movement to the right to draw the Persian cavalry, creating a gap in their line for his decisive charge.

The battle and victory. As Alexander's cavalry moved right, Darius's cavalry followed, stretching their line. Alexander seized the moment, wheeling his Companion cavalry and Guards into the gap, charging directly at Darius. The Persian center collapsed, and Darius fled. Although the Persian cavalry on the left broke through the Macedonian line to attack the camp, Alexander returned from the pursuit to help secure the victory. The Persian army was utterly routed, marking the end of Darius's effective resistance.

6. Relentless Pursuit and Betrayal Lead to Darius's End

Bessus and his friends did not at once abandon the attempt to get Darius away in the wagon, but when Alexander was close upon them, Nabarzanes and Barsaentes struck him down and left him and made their escape with 600 horsemen.

Capture of Persian capitals. Following Gaugamela, Alexander swiftly occupied Babylon and Susa, securing immense treasures. He treated the inhabitants with respect and appointed Persian governors, beginning his policy of integrating Persians into his administration. He then marched to Persepolis, the ceremonial capital, which he burned, an act he later regretted but justified as retribution for Persian sacrilege in Greece.

Pursuit of Darius. Learning Darius had fled to Media, Alexander pursued relentlessly, covering vast distances at incredible speed. Despite the exhaustion of his men and horses, he pressed on, driven by the desire to capture the Persian king. Darius, abandoned by many of his troops, was ultimately betrayed and arrested by his own satraps, Bessus, Nabarzanes, and Barsaentes.

Darius's death and Bessus's fate. Alexander's final, desperate dash caught up with the conspirators just as they were attempting to escape. They fatally wounded Darius and fled. Alexander found Darius dying and, according to some accounts, was unable to speak with him. He sent Darius's body back to Persepolis for royal burial. Bessus, who had proclaimed himself king, was later captured and brutally executed by Alexander for his treachery.

7. Confronting Eastern Resistance and Personal Danger in India

This rock is a really tremendous thing; and the story goes that Heracles himself, the son of Zeus, was unable to capture it.

Campaigns in Bactria and Sogdiana. After Darius's death, Alexander faced prolonged guerrilla warfare in the eastern provinces led by figures like Spitamenes. He spent years subduing these regions, employing mobile tactics and founding cities to secure control. The capture of the seemingly impregnable Sogdian Rock, where he met and married Roxane, marked a turning point in securing Sogdiana.

Advance into India. Crossing the Hindu Kush (Indian Caucasus), Alexander entered India. He received submission from some rulers, like Taxiles, but faced fierce resistance from independent tribes. His campaigns in the rugged terrain against the Aspasians, Guraeans, and Assacenians were difficult, marked by tough fighting and Alexander's own willingness to lead from the front, sustaining several wounds.

The Mallian assault. During the campaign against the Mallians, Alexander's impatience led him to leap alone into a fortified town's citadel after the ladders broke. He was quickly surrounded and severely wounded by an arrow that pierced his lung. Only the desperate efforts of his guards and the subsequent storming of the citadel by his enraged troops saved him. This near-fatal injury deeply affected his army.

8. Shared Hardship and Inspiring Leadership Forge Unbreakable Bonds

So extraordinary was the effect of this action that the water wasted by Alexander was as good as a drink for every man in the army.

Leading by example. Throughout his campaigns, Alexander consistently shared the dangers and hardships of his soldiers. He marched on foot with them, fought in the front lines, and endured the same privations. This personal involvement fostered immense loyalty and enabled his men to endure incredible suffering, knowing their leader was with them.

The Gedrosian ordeal. The march through the Gedrosian desert after the Indian campaign was perhaps the army's greatest trial. Facing extreme heat, lack of water, and impassable terrain, many men and animals perished. Alexander shared their suffering, famously pouring away a helmet of water offered to him because there was not enough for everyone, an act that profoundly inspired his troops.

Inspiring speeches and reconciliation. Alexander was a master orator, capable of rousing his men's spirits before battle and addressing their grievances. Although the army's exhaustion led to a mutiny at the Hyphasis River, forcing him to turn back, and discontent flared again at Opis, Alexander's powerful speeches, willingness to admit fault (after Cleitus's murder), and eventual reconciliation with his troops demonstrated his deep connection with them.

9. Boundless Ambition, Divine Aspirations, and Cultural Integration Stir Discontent

Nor do I think that Alexander’s claim to a divine origin was a very serious fault – in any case, it may well have been a mere device to magnify his consequence in the eyes of his subjects.

Relentless drive. Alexander's ambition was insatiable. He constantly sought new lands to conquer and new challenges to overcome, pushing his army to its limits. His desire to surpass the legendary feats of Heracles and Dionysus fueled his expeditions to India and beyond, even contemplating circumnavigating Arabia and conquering Carthage.

Divine claims and prostration. Alexander's visits to oracles, particularly Siwah, and his claim to be the son of Ammon-Zeus, along with his attempt to introduce the Persian custom of prostration (proskynesis), caused friction with his Macedonian and Greek followers. Figures like Callisthenes openly opposed these moves, viewing them as signs of arrogance and a departure from Greek tradition.

Integration policies. Alexander increasingly adopted Persian dress and court ceremonial. He married Persian princesses and encouraged his officers and soldiers to do the same. He also began incorporating Persian troops into Macedonian units and appointing Persians to high administrative and military positions. While perhaps intended to unify his vast empire, these policies alienated many Macedonians who felt their unique status and identity were being eroded.

10. Final Plans, Sudden Death, and an Empire's Uncertain Future

Alexander died in the 114th Olympiad, in the archonship of Hegesias at Athens.

Return to Babylon and final preparations. After campaigns in Persia and Media, Alexander returned to Babylon, planning further expeditions, possibly against Arabia. He continued administrative reforms, punishing corrupt governors and integrating Persian troops. He also oversaw extensive naval preparations, including dredging a harbor in Babylon, indicating large-scale future plans.

Omens and illness. As Alexander prepared for his next venture, various omens were reported, including the Chaldaean priests' warning against entering Babylon and the incident of the sailor wearing the royal diadem. Shortly after a prolonged drinking party, Alexander fell ill with a fever.

Death and succession. Alexander's condition rapidly worsened. Despite his weakening state, he continued to issue orders for the planned expedition and perform religious duties. He was eventually unable to speak but recognized his soldiers as they filed past his deathbed. He died in Babylon at the age of 32, having reigned for 12 years. His final words regarding his successor were reportedly "to the best man," leaving his vast empire without a clear heir and setting the stage for decades of conflict among his generals.

Last updated: May 18, 2025