The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler

1. Life's Driving Force: Striving for Superiority

The striving from a felt minus situation towards a plus situation, from a feeling of inferiority towards superiority, perfection, totality.

Universal Motivation. Adler posits that all human activity is driven by a fundamental striving to move from a perceived state of inferiority to one of superiority, perfection, or totality. This isn't about dominating others, but rather about overcoming personal limitations and achieving a sense of wholeness.

• This striving is not a static goal but a continuous process.
• It is the underlying force behind all human endeavors.
• It is a response to a perceived "minus" situation.

Beyond Simple Drives. This striving is not merely about satisfying basic needs or seeking pleasure. It's a more profound, inherent urge to grow, improve, and reach one's full potential. It is a dynamic force that shapes our choices, actions, and even our perceptions of the world.

• It is not reducible to physiological drives.
• It is a psychological force that directs our behavior.
• It is a striving for a "plus" situation.

Individual Expression. While the striving for superiority is universal, its specific direction and manifestation are unique to each individual. This is shaped by personal experiences, interpretations, and the individual's creative power.

• It is not a uniform or standardized process.
• It is expressed through individually unique goals.
• It is influenced by both internal and external factors.

2. The Fictional Final Goal: Shaping Our Path

The striving receives its specific direction from an individually unique goal or self-ideal, which though influenced by biological and environmental factors is ultimately the creation of the individual. Because it is an ideal, the goal is a fiction.

Unconscious Direction. Our striving for superiority is guided by a "fictional final goal," an ideal self-image that we create, often unconsciously, to provide direction and meaning to our lives. This goal is not a concrete reality but a subjective construct that shapes our perceptions and actions.

• It is not a conscious or fully understood goal.
• It is a creation of the individual, not an external imposition.
• It is a "fiction" in that it is an ideal, not a reality.

Purpose and Meaning. This fictional goal acts as a "final cause," influencing our choices and behaviors. It provides a sense of purpose and direction, even though it may be based on an unrealistic or unattainable ideal.

• It is the ultimate independent variable in understanding the individual.
• It is the key to understanding the individual's unique style of life.
• It is a working hypothesis for the psychologist.

Subjective Reality. The fictional goal is not based on objective reality but on our subjective interpretation of the world. It is shaped by our experiences, beliefs, and values, and it influences how we perceive and interact with our environment.

• It is a subjective, not objective, construct.
• It is influenced by biological and environmental factors.
• It is the individual's unique creation.

3. Social Interest: The Measure of Mental Health

The socialization of the individual is not achieved at the cost of repression, but is afforded through an innate human ability, which, however, needs to be developed. It is this ability which Adler calls social feeling or social interest.

Innate Potential. Social interest, or social feeling, is an innate human capacity for empathy, cooperation, and a sense of belonging to a larger community. It is not a learned behavior but a potential that needs to be developed and nurtured.

• It is not a repression of individual desires.
• It is an innate human ability.
• It needs to be developed through experience.

Beyond Self-Centeredness. Social interest is the key to mental health and well-being. It involves a shift from self-centeredness to other-directedness, a genuine concern for the welfare of others, and a desire to contribute to the common good.

• It is a value expressed through empathy.
• It is other-directedness, not self-centeredness.
• It is a universal human capacity.

Adjustment and Maladjustment. The degree to which we develop our social interest determines our level of adjustment. Maladjustment is characterized by underdeveloped social interest, increased feelings of inferiority, and an exaggerated striving for personal superiority.

• It is crucial for individual adjustment.
• It is the basis for all social values.
• It is the key to mental health.

4. The Style of Life: Our Unique Blueprint

All psychological processes form a self-consistent organization from the point of view of the goal, like a drama which is constructed from the beginning with the finale in view. This self-consistent personality structure is what Adler calls the style of life.

Unified Personality. The style of life is the unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that each individual develops to pursue their fictional final goal. It is a self-consistent organization of all psychological processes, like a drama with a pre-determined finale.

• It is a self-consistent personality structure.
• It is a unified relational system.
• It is established early in life.

Early Formation. The style of life is formed in early childhood, primarily within the first five years of life. It is influenced by biological and environmental factors, but it is ultimately a creative act of the individual.

• It is a creative act of the individual.
• It is influenced by biological and environmental factors.
• It is established at an early age.

Constancy and Adaptation. Once established, the style of life tends to remain relatively constant, guiding our perceptions, interpretations, and actions. However, it is not rigid; it can adapt to new situations while maintaining its underlying consistency.

• It is self-consistent and constant.
• It is unique and subjective.
• It is a framework for understanding behavior.

5. The Psychology of Use: How We Employ Our Tools

The individual uses all objective factors in accordance with his style of life. “Their significance and effectiveness is developed only in the intermediary psychological metabolism, so to speak.”

Subjective Interpretation. Adler emphasizes that objective factors like heredity and environment do not directly determine our behavior. Instead, we use these factors in accordance with our style of life, interpreting and responding to them in a way that aligns with our goals and values.

• Objective factors are not direct causes.
• They provide probabilities, not certainties.
• The individual uses them in accordance with his style of life.

Functionalism. Adler's approach is functional, focusing on how we use our abilities and experiences rather than on what we possess. He is interested in the "psychology of use," not the "psychology of possession."

• It is a functional, not structural, approach.
• It emphasizes use over possession.
• It focuses on how we employ our tools.

Cognitive Processes. Cognitive processes like perception, learning, memory, and fantasy are not separate entities but are all integrated into the style of life. They are used to support the individual's unique way of striving for superiority.

• Cognitive processes are not discrete entities.
• They are aspects of a unified relational system.
• They are used in accordance with the style of life.

6. Neurotic Safeguarding: Defending a Flawed Self

Maladjustment is characterized by increased inferiority feelings, underdeveloped social interest, and an exaggerated uncooperative goal of personal superiority.

Exaggerated Self-Enhancement. Neurotic behavior is characterized by an exaggerated striving for personal superiority, often at the expense of others. This striving is a compensation for deep-seated feelings of inferiority and insecurity.

• It is an exaggerated, uncooperative goal.
• It is a compensation for inferiority feelings.
• It is a self-centered, not other-directed, striving.

Safeguarding Mechanisms. Neurotics employ various safeguarding mechanisms to protect their self-esteem and avoid facing their limitations. These mechanisms include excuses, aggression, and withdrawal.

• Safeguards are used to protect self-esteem.
• They include excuses, aggression, and withdrawal.
• They are often unconscious and self-deceptive.

Private Sense. Neurotics operate from a "private sense" rather than a "common sense," interpreting the world in a way that supports their flawed self-image and reinforces their maladaptive behaviors.

• They solve problems in a self-centered way.
• They use a "private sense" rather than "common sense."
• They experience failure because they accept social validity as their ultimate criterion.

7. The Onset of Neurosis: When the System Fails

Maladjustment is characterized by increased inferiority feelings, underdeveloped social interest, and an exaggerated uncooperative goal of personal superiority.

Subjective Interpretation. The onset of neurosis is not determined by objective events but by the individual's subjective interpretation of those events. It is when the individual feels unable to cope with a situation that his neurotic tendencies become manifest.

• It is determined by the subjective, not objective, factor.
• It is a creative response to a perceived threat.
• It is a manifestation of a faulty style of life.

Supporting Factors. The onset of neurosis is often supported by factors such as organ inferiority, oversensitivity, and past experiences. These factors do not cause the neurosis but provide a context in which it is more likely to develop.

• Organ inferiority provides a point of least resistance.
• Oversensitivity magnifies perceived threats.
• Past experiences are interpreted through the neurotic lens.

Objective Factors. Objective factors such as adverse experiences, conflicts, and shocks are not direct causes of neurosis but become significant when they are interpreted by the individual as a threat to his self-esteem.

• Objective factors are relative to the individual's goal.
• They provide probabilities, not certainties.
• They are used in accordance with the style of life.

8. Understanding the Patient: Empathy and Insight

We must be able to see with his eyes and listen with his ears.

Empathic Understanding. The first step in therapy is to understand the patient's unique perspective, to see the world through his eyes and to feel his emotions. This requires empathy, intuition, and a willingness to suspend judgment.

• It requires empathy and intuition.
• It is based on the patient's subjective experience.
• It is a process of "seeing with his eyes and listening with his ears."

Expressive Behavior. Understanding the patient involves paying attention to all forms of expression, including verbal communication, body language, and symptoms. These are all clues to the patient's underlying style of life.

• It involves observing expressive behavior.
• It includes symptoms, gestures, and attitudes.
• It is a way of understanding the patient's inner world.

Explanation and Insight. The therapist must then explain the patient to himself, helping him to understand the mistaken assumptions and patterns of behavior that are contributing to his difficulties. This process is not about blame but about fostering self-awareness and insight.

• It involves explaining the patient to himself.
• It is about helping the patient gain insight.
• It is a process of self-discovery.

9. The Therapeutic Relationship: Cooperation and Encouragement

The therapeutic relationship is a process of deepening and widening the interest for interpersonal relations.

Cooperative Partnership. The therapeutic relationship is a cooperative partnership between the therapist and the patient. The therapist does not act as an authority figure but as a fellow traveler, guiding the patient on his journey of self-discovery.

• It is a cooperative partnership.
• It is based on mutual respect and understanding.
• It is a process of joint exploration.

Disarming the Patient. The therapist must disarm the patient's defenses by creating a safe and non-judgmental environment. This involves avoiding criticism, blame, and any form of superiority.

• It involves disarming the patient's defenses.
• It is about creating a safe and non-judgmental space.
• It is a process of building trust and rapport.

Encouragement and Social Interest. The therapist's primary task is to awaken the patient's social interest and to encourage him to take responsibility for his own life. This involves helping the patient to see his potential for growth and contribution.

• It involves awakening social interest.
• It is about encouraging the patient to take responsibility.
• It is a process of fostering self-confidence and courage.

10. Early Recollections and Dreams: Windows to the Unconscious

Early recollections and dreams are expressions of the style of life.

Early Recollections. Early recollections are not merely memories of past events but are expressions of the individual's current style of life. They are selected and interpreted in a way that supports the individual's self-image and goals.

• They are not objective records of the past.
• They are expressions of the style of life.
• They are selected and interpreted subjectively.

Dreams as Problem-Solving. Dreams are not merely wish fulfillments but are attempts to solve problems and to prepare for the future. They use metaphors and symbols to express the individual's underlying concerns and strivings.

• They are not merely wish fulfillments.
• They are attempts to solve problems.
• They are expressions of the style of life.

Forward-Looking Function. Both early recollections and dreams are forward-looking, providing clues to the individual's future direction and goals. They are not merely reflections of the past but are active forces in shaping the individual's present and future.

• They are forward-looking, not backward-looking.
• They are problem-solving, not wish-fulfilling.
• They are expressions of the individual's unique style of life.

11. The Problem Child: A Call for Understanding

The child’s need for affection should not be satisfied as a game alone, but primarily for culturally useful results. Furthermore the child should not be blocked in the satisfaction of his affection, as long as he can achieve this along cultural paths.

Faulty Style of Life. Problem behavior in children is not a sign of inherent badness but a manifestation of a faulty style of life. It is a way of coping with feelings of inferiority and insecurity, often through self-centered and uncooperative means.

• It is a manifestation of a faulty style of life.
• It is a way of coping with inferiority feelings.
• It is a result of a lack of social interest.

Specific Disorders. Specific behavior disorders such as habit disorders, fears, stuttering, aggression, and isolation are all expressions of the child's unique style of life. They are not isolated problems but are part of a larger pattern of maladaptive behavior.

• They are expressions of the style of life.
• They are not isolated problems.
• They are attempts to cope with difficulties.

Understanding and Treatment. Understanding the problem child requires empathy, patience, and a focus on the child's underlying needs and goals. Treatment involves helping the child to develop social interest, courage, and a more realistic view of the world.

• It requires empathy and understanding.
• It is about helping the child develop social interest.
• It is a process of re-education and encouragement.

12. Crime and Related Disorders: A Failure of Social Interest

Maladjustment is characterized by increased inferiority feelings, underdeveloped social interest, and an exaggerated uncooperative goal of personal superiority.

Lack of Social Interest. Crime, drug addiction, alcoholism, and sexual perversions are all expressions of a lack of social interest. They are attempts to achieve a sense of superiority through socially unacceptable means.

• They are expressions of a lack of social interest.
• They are attempts to achieve personal superiority.
• They are solutions to problems on the useless side of life.

Private Logic. Criminals and other maladjusted individuals operate from a "private logic," a distorted view of the world that supports their self-centered goals. They often justify their actions with excuses and rationalizations.

• They operate from a "private logic."
• They justify their actions with excuses.
• They are unable to see the world from a common-sense perspective.

Treatment and Prevention. Treatment involves helping the individual to develop social interest, courage, and a more realistic view of the world. Prevention requires creating a society that fosters cooperation, empathy, and a sense of belonging.

• It requires developing social interest and courage.
• It is about helping the individual to see the world from a common-sense perspective.
• It is a process of re-education and social integration.

Last updated: January 19, 2025