The Theory of Moral Sentiments

1. Sympathy Forms the Basis of Moral Judgment

As we have no immediate experience of what other men feel, we can form no idea of the manner in which they are affected, but by conceiving what we ourselves should feel in the like situation.

Imagination and empathy. Adam Smith posits that our capacity for sympathy—the ability to understand and share the feelings of others—is fundamental to our moral judgments. Because we cannot directly experience another's emotions, we use our imagination to place ourselves in their position, thereby forming an idea of their sensations. This imaginative exercise allows us to connect with others and is the bedrock of our moral compass.

Mirroring emotions. This process isn't limited to sorrow; it extends to all passions. We experience joy at the good fortune of characters in stories, gratitude towards those who help them, and resentment towards those who betray them. The emotions of a bystander mirror what they imagine the sufferer should feel, showcasing the breadth of sympathy's influence.

Sympathy's limits. However, sympathy isn't automatic or universal. Some expressions of emotion, like uncontrolled anger, can repel us until we understand their cause. Our sympathy arises not just from seeing the emotion, but from understanding the situation that provokes it. This understanding allows us to judge whether the emotion is appropriate, forming the basis of our moral approval or disapproval.

2. Pleasure Arises from Mutual Sympathy

But whatever may be the cause of sympathy, or however it may be excited, nothing pleases us more than to observe in other men a fellow-feeling with all the emotions of our own breast; nor are we ever so much shocked as by the appearance of the contrary.

Shared emotions. Observing others share our emotions brings profound pleasure, while encountering indifference or opposition to our feelings causes significant distress. This pleasure isn't merely about self-interest or expecting assistance; it's an immediate, almost instinctive response to the validation of our inner experiences.

Communicating sorrow. We often seek to share our sorrows more eagerly than our joys, finding relief in the sympathy of others. This sharing unburdens us, as if the listener absorbs a portion of our distress. The absence of sympathy in times of sorrow is a deep insult, highlighting our innate need for emotional connection.

Resentment and love. Love and resentment exemplify this dynamic. We are more eager for others to share our resentments than our affections. The healing power of shared sorrow and the validation of shared joy underscore the fundamental human desire for mutual understanding and emotional resonance.

3. Self-Command and Sensibility Define Virtue

And hence it is, that to feel much for others and little for ourselves, that to restrain our selfish, and to indulge our benevolent affections, constitutes the perfection of human nature; and can alone produce among mankind that harmony of sentiments and passions in which consist their whole grace and propriety.

Balancing act. Virtues are cultivated through the interplay between our capacity to sympathize with others and our ability to moderate our own passions. The "amiable virtues" stem from our efforts to connect with and understand the feelings of those around us. Conversely, the "respectable virtues" arise from our capacity for self-denial and control.

Amiable vs. respectable. The amiable virtues, such as kindness and compassion, are celebrated for their tenderness and delicacy. The respectable virtues, like self-denial and self-government, command reverence for their strength and discipline. Both sets of virtues are essential for a well-rounded character and a harmonious society.

Christianity and nature. The ideal is to strike a balance, feeling deeply for others while maintaining a sense of self-command. This balance echoes the Christian principle of loving our neighbor as ourselves, and the natural inclination to love ourselves only as our neighbor is capable of loving us. This harmony of sentiments and passions is the essence of human grace and propriety.

4. Impartiality is Key to Moral Assessment

Every faculty in one man is the measure by which he judges of the like faculty in another. I judge of your sight by my sight, of your ear by my ear, of your reason by my reason, of your resentment by my resentment, of your love by my love. I neither have nor can have any other way of judging about them.

Shared standards. We assess the emotions and actions of others by comparing them to our own experiences and understanding. This comparison is the foundation of our judgment, as we use our own faculties as the yardstick for measuring those of others. This is true for sensory experiences, like sight and hearing, and for complex emotions, like resentment and love.

Taste and judgment. When evaluating matters of taste or intellect, we value sentiments that align with and even elevate our own. We admire those who demonstrate a keener sense of beauty or a more comprehensive understanding than we possess. This admiration stems from recognizing their superior discernment.

Personal connection. However, judging sentiments tied to personal experiences, like misfortune or injury, requires a more nuanced approach. It's more challenging to maintain harmony and correspondence because our individual perspectives are deeply affected. Achieving impartiality requires a conscious effort to bridge the gap between personal experience and objective evaluation.

5. Merit and Demerit Stem from Gratitude and Resentment

To us, therefore, that action must appear to deserve reward, which appears to be the proper and approved object of gratitude; as, on the other hand, that action must appear to deserve punishment, which appears to be the proper and approved object of resentment.

Rewarding good, punishing evil. Our sense of merit is rooted in gratitude, the feeling that compels us to reciprocate good deeds. Conversely, our sense of demerit arises from resentment, the impulse to retaliate against harmful actions. These sentiments are the immediate drivers of our desire to reward or punish.

Recompense and remuneration. Both reward and punishment serve as forms of recompense, returning good for good and evil for evil. This reciprocal exchange is fundamental to our understanding of justice and fairness.

Sympathetic alignment. An action deserves reward when it evokes gratitude that resonates with every impartial observer. Similarly, an action warrants punishment when it sparks resentment that any reasonable person would share. This shared emotional response validates our judgment of merit or demerit.

6. Justice is Essential; Beneficence is Ornamental

Beneficence is always free, it cannot be extorted by force, the mere want of it exposes to no punishment; because the mere want of beneficence tends to do no real positive evil.

Voluntary kindness. Beneficence, or the act of doing good, is a voluntary virtue that cannot be compelled. While a lack of beneficence may disappoint or displease, it doesn't warrant punishment because it doesn't inflict direct harm.

Resentment and defense. Resentment, on the other hand, is a defensive emotion that safeguards justice and protects innocence. It's triggered by actions that cause real and positive harm, making the violation of justice a punishable offense.

Foundation vs. embellishment. Justice is the bedrock of society, essential for its survival. Beneficence, while desirable, is more of an embellishment, enhancing the quality of life but not strictly necessary for social order. This distinction highlights the critical importance of upholding justice as a fundamental duty.

7. Wealth and Rank Seek Sympathy, Not Necessities

To be observed, to be attended to, to be taken notice of with sympathy, complacency, and approbation, are all the advantages which we can propose to derive from it. It is the vanity, not the ease, or the pleasure, which interests us.

Beyond basic needs. The pursuit of wealth and status extends far beyond the satisfaction of basic needs. Even the wages of the meanest laborer can supply them. The driving force behind ambition is the desire for attention, admiration, and validation from others.

Vanity's allure. Wealthy individuals revel in their riches because they attract the gaze of the world, inspiring sympathy and approval. This attention fuels their vanity, making them value their wealth more for its social impact than for its material benefits.

The cost of greatness. The pursuit of greatness often involves sacrificing leisure, ease, and security. Yet, these sacrifices are deemed worthwhile for the sake of public admiration. This dynamic underscores the powerful influence of social validation on human motivation and behavior.

8. Custom and Fashion Shape Moral Perceptions

The remote effects of these passions which are agreeable; the immediate effects are mischief to the person against whom they are directed.

Beyond natural sentiments. While natural sentiments form the foundation of our moral judgments, custom and fashion exert a significant influence, shaping our perceptions of what is considered acceptable or desirable. These forces can lead to variations in moral standards across different societies and time periods.

Custom's influence. Custom normalizes certain behaviors, making them seem acceptable even if they deviate from natural principles of right and wrong. This normalization can dull our sensitivity to the inherent impropriety of certain actions.

Fashion's sway. Fashion elevates certain behaviors or qualities, associating them with prestige and desirability. This association can distort our judgment, leading us to value superficial traits over genuine virtues. The interplay of custom and fashion highlights the malleability of moral sentiments and the importance of critical reflection.

9. Reason and Sentiment Both Guide Moral Action

The mind, therefore, is rarely so disturbed, but that the company of a friend will restore it to some degree of tranquillity and sedateness. The breast is, in some measure, calmed and composed the moment we come into his presence.

Dual influences. Moral judgments are shaped by both reason and sentiment. Reason provides the framework of rules and principles, while sentiment infuses these rules with emotional weight and personal relevance.

Reason's role. Reason enables us to understand the consequences of our actions and to formulate general rules of conduct. It helps us discern the long-term implications of our choices and to align our behavior with our values.

Sentiment's role. Sentiment provides the immediate, visceral responses that guide our actions in specific situations. It's the emotional compass that steers us toward what feels right and away from what feels wrong. The interplay between reason and sentiment creates a dynamic and nuanced moral landscape.

10. The Deity's Law Reinforces Moral Duty

The inspired writers would not surely have talked so frequently or so strongly of the wrath and anger of God, if they had regarded every degree of those passions as vicious and evil, even in so weak and imperfect a creature as man.

Divine sanction. The belief that moral rules are divinely ordained adds a layer of sacredness and authority to our sense of duty. This belief reinforces our commitment to ethical conduct by introducing the prospect of divine reward or punishment.

Beyond earthly justice. The concept of divine justice extends beyond the limitations of earthly systems. It offers hope that wrongs will be righted and virtue will be rewarded, even if they go unacknowledged in this life.

Internal compass. This belief in a higher power and a future reckoning strengthens our resolve to act morally, even when faced with temptation or adversity. It provides a framework for navigating complex ethical dilemmas and for maintaining integrity in the face of societal pressures.

Last updated: February 19, 2025