The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939

1. International Politics: A Science Born of Crisis

The science of international politics has, then, come into being in response to a popular demand.

From Indifference to Inquiry. Before World War I, international relations were the domain of professionals, largely untouched by public scrutiny or academic interest. The war shattered this indifference, igniting a demand for understanding the forces driving global events. This popular demand spurred the birth of international politics as a distinct field of study.

Purpose-Driven Science. The emergence of international politics as a science was not a dispassionate pursuit of knowledge, but a response to a pressing need: preventing future wars. This purpose-driven nature shaped the field's initial focus and direction. Early scholars were motivated by a desire to cure the "illnesses" of the international system.

Early Focus on Aspiration. The initial phase of international politics was characterized by utopianism, with a strong emphasis on visionary projects and less attention to analyzing existing realities. This focus on aspiration over analysis marked the field's infancy, as scholars sought to create a better world order.

2. Utopia and Reality: The Dual Nature of Political Thought

Utopia and reality are thus the two facets of political science.

The Eternal Antithesis. Political thought is shaped by a constant tension between utopian ideals and the constraints of reality. This fundamental antithesis manifests in various forms, including the conflict between free will and determinism, theory and practice, and intellectualism and bureaucracy.

Balancing Act. Healthy political thought requires a balance between utopianism and realism. Utopianism provides the vision and purpose, while realism offers the analytical tools to understand the world as it is. Overemphasis on either extreme leads to either naive idealism or sterile cynicism.

Manifestations of the Antithesis:

• Utopianism: Voluntarism, theory-driven, intellectual-led, ethical focus
• Realism: Determinism, practice-driven, bureaucrat-led, power focus

3. The Illusion of Harmony: Exposing Self-Interest in International Relations

Theories of international morality are, for the same reason and in virtue of the same process, the product of dominant nations or groups of nations.

The Myth of Shared Interests. The doctrine of the harmony of interests, a cornerstone of utopian thought, posits that the interests of all nations naturally align. However, this belief often masks the self-serving agendas of dominant powers, who promote their own interests as universal goods.

Power and Morality. Dominant nations often frame their policies as morally superior, presenting their self-interests as aligned with the greater good of humanity. This tactic allows them to maintain their privileged position while discrediting those who challenge the status quo.

Examples of Self-Serving Morality:

• British promotion of free trade in the 19th century
• American advocacy for democracy promotion today
• The use of "collective security" to defend the status quo

4. Power as the Bedrock: Military, Economic, and Ideological Dimensions

Politics are, then, in one sense always power politics.

The Primacy of Power. Power, in its various forms, is an essential element of all political action. International politics, in particular, is characterized by a constant struggle for power among states. Understanding the dynamics of power is crucial for analyzing international events.

Three Dimensions of Power:

• Military Power: The capacity to wage war and project force
• Economic Power: The ability to control resources and influence trade
• Power over Opinion: The capacity to shape beliefs and values

Interdependence of Power. These three dimensions of power are closely intertwined. Military strength relies on economic resources, and both are enhanced by the ability to shape public opinion. A state's overall power is determined by its capacity in all three areas.

5. Morality's Murky Waters: Ethics in a World of States

International morality is the morality of states.

State vs. Individual Ethics. International morality operates on a different plane than individual ethics. While individuals are expected to act altruistically, states are primarily judged by their ability to protect and advance their own interests.

The Illusion of International Community. The existence of an international community is often invoked to justify moral obligations among states. However, this community is weaker and less cohesive than national communities, making it difficult to enforce ethical standards.

Challenges to International Morality:

• Inequality among states
• Lack of a universally accepted moral code
• The primacy of national interests

6. Law and Order: The Fragile Foundations of International Society

Law is regarded as binding because, if it were not, political society could not exist and there could be no law.

Law as a Social Construct. International law, like all law, is a product of political society. Its authority rests on the shared recognition that it is necessary for maintaining order and stability. However, the international community's underdeveloped nature limits the scope and effectiveness of international law.

Shortcomings of International Law:

• Lack of a compulsory judicature
• Absence of an effective executive
• Limited legislative capacity

The Primacy of Politics. The development and enforcement of international law are ultimately political problems. Progress in strengthening international law requires greater political cooperation and a shared commitment to upholding its principles.

7. Peaceful Change: Reconciling Power and Justice in a Dynamic World

The problem of ‘peaceful change’ is, in national politics, how to effect necessary and desirable changes without revolution and, in international politics, how to effect such changes without war.

The Inevitability of Change. Political systems, both national and international, are constantly evolving. The challenge lies in managing this change peacefully, without resorting to violence or coercion.

The Role of Power and Morality. Effective change requires a balance between power and morality. Power is necessary to challenge the status quo, while morality provides a framework for negotiating just and sustainable solutions.

Lessons from Labor Relations:

• The right to strike as a means of peaceful negotiation
• The importance of recognizing the legitimacy of grievances
• The need for a system of conciliation and arbitration

8. The Future International Order: Beyond Utopia and Reality

Sound political thought and sound political life will be found only where both have their place.

Transcending the Dichotomy. The path forward lies in transcending the simplistic dichotomy between utopianism and realism. A mature understanding of international politics requires embracing both vision and pragmatism.

The Need for a New Synthesis. The challenge for the future is to create a new international order that acknowledges the role of power while upholding ethical principles. This requires a willingness to compromise, negotiate, and adapt to changing circumstances.

A Call for Action. By understanding the interplay of utopia and reality, we can move towards a more peaceful and just world. This requires a commitment to both visionary ideals and practical solutions, recognizing that progress is an ongoing process, not a destination.

Last updated: February 5, 2025