The Wolf Age

1. The Wolf Age: A World Defined by Violence and Shifting Loyalties.

Brothers will fight and kill each other, […] —an axe-age, a sword-age —shields are riven— a wind-age, a wolf-age— before the world goes headlong.

A brutal era. The period around 1000 AD, known as the Wolf Age, was characterized by relentless violence, political instability, and a breakdown of traditional bonds. As prophesied in ancient Norse verse, it was a time when "no man will have mercy on another," reflecting the harsh realities faced by kings and commoners alike. Leaders like Snorri Sturluson, living centuries later, looked back on this era with a mix of awe and understanding, recognizing the timeless logic of power and conflict.

Power through force. In this age, authority was not inherent but constantly asserted through military strength and the strategic use of violence. Kings and chieftains rose and fell based on their ability to command warriors, secure resources through plunder or tribute, and navigate a treacherous landscape of shifting alliances. Snorri's own violent end, despite his wealth and influence, underscored the precariousness of life at the top.

A world in flux. This was a transitional period where old pagan beliefs clashed with the rising tide of Christianity, and ancient tribal structures gave way to nascent kingdoms. The sagas and poems of the time, while often exaggerated, captured the spirit of this turbulent age, celebrating warrior heroes and lamenting the pervasive chaos that seemed to signal the world's impending end.

2. England's Vulnerability: Internal Strife Paved the Way for Conquest.

A nervous, uneasy atmosphere was already pervasive in Anglo-Saxon England.

A kingdom in crisis. King Æthelred inherited a fragile kingdom plagued by internal divisions and weak leadership. His reign began with ill omens and was quickly overshadowed by renewed Viking attacks, highlighting the instability that followed the death of his predecessor, Edgar the Peaceful. The murder of his brother Edward and the subsequent power struggles among the Anglo-Saxon nobility created deep rifts within the ruling elite.

Failed defense strategies. Despite attempts to build a strong military and fleet, Æthelred's efforts were undermined by disunity and betrayal among his own leaders, such as Eadric Streona. The inability to mount a unified defense forced the kingdom into a ruinous cycle of paying massive tributes to the Danes, draining its wealth and further eroding the king's authority. The St Brice's Day massacre, ordered by Æthelred, only intensified the conflict and provided the Danes with further justification for their attacks.

Ripe for the taking. By the time Sweyn Forkbeard launched his full-scale invasion, England was exhausted by war, famine, and internal conflict. The kingdom's advanced administrative and economic systems, particularly its wealth in silver, made it an irresistible target for ambitious Norse rulers. Æthelred's flight and the subsequent submission of towns and nobles demonstrated the extent to which the Anglo-Saxon regime had collapsed.

3. The Viking Warrior's Life: Plunder, Prestige, and Ruthless Efficiency.

I was with the lord, who gave gold to his loyal men and carrion to the ravens.

A life of war. For Norse warriors, war was not an exception but a way of life, a path to wealth, honor, and social advancement. Leaders like Olaf Haraldsson and Thorkell the Tall built their careers and power bases on successful raiding and the ability to distribute plunder among their loyal followers. The bond between a lord and his men, cemented by oaths and shared spoils, was the fundamental unit of power.

Culture of violence. Norse society, particularly its warrior class, glorified battle and aggression. Skaldic poetry celebrated bloody victories, depicting warriors as predators and their enemies as prey. Concepts like the "swine array" battle formation and the berserkers' animalistic fury highlight the intense, often terrifying, nature of their warfare.

Beyond brute force. While renowned for their ferocity, Viking armies were also highly organized and adaptable. They were skilled seamen, navigators, and engineers, capable of complex logistical feats like building ring castles or transporting ships overland. Their ability to move quickly by sea and land, establish fortified camps, and employ cunning tactics like hidden trenches made them formidable opponents across Europe.

4. Olaf Haraldsson's Early Ambition: Raiding Across Europe for Wealth and Renown.

Battle-bold king, you launched your ship when young.

From prince to raider. Born into the Norse elite in Norway, Olaf Haraldsson began his career as a young Viking leader, seeking fortune and fame abroad. His early expeditions took him far from his homeland, raiding across the Baltic Sea before joining the larger Danish war machine targeting England. These voyages were not just about plunder but also about building a reputation and gaining the experience necessary to lead.

A wide world. Olaf's travels exposed him to the diverse cultures and power centers of Europe, from the Frankish kingdoms and Norman dukedoms to the sophisticated caliphate of Córdoba. He learned to navigate complex political landscapes, entering into alliances with figures like Duke Richard of Normandy and even King Æthelred of England, demonstrating a pragmatic approach to loyalty driven by opportunity.

Accumulating capital. Through years of raiding, tribute collection, and mercenary service, Olaf amassed significant wealth in silver and other valuables. This material wealth, combined with his growing reputation as a successful warrior, provided him with the crucial resources needed to attract followers and pursue his ultimate ambition: establishing himself as a king in his own right back in Scandinavia.

5. Thorkell the Tall's War: Bringing England to its Knees.

... over-run, 1st, East-Anglia, and 2d, Essex, and 3d, Middlesex, and 4th, Oxfordshire, and 5th, Cambridgeshire, and 6th, Hertfordshire, and 7th, Buckinghamshire, and 8th, Bedfordshire, and 9th, half of Huntingdonshire, and 10th, much of Northamptonshire; and south of Thames, all Kent, and Sussex, and Hastings, and Surry, and Berkshire, and Hampshire, and much of Wiltshire.

Sweyn's hammer. As Sweyn Forkbeard's chief commander, Thorkell the Tall led the devastating Danish campaigns that systematically ravaged England for years. His army, a formidable force of experienced warriors, moved with brutal efficiency, burning villages, plundering resources, and demanding ever-larger tributes from the beleaguered Anglo-Saxons. The siege of London and the bloody Battle of Ringmere were key moments in his relentless campaign.

Master of war. Thorkell demonstrated strategic acumen, adapting his tactics to counter Anglo-Saxon defenses and exploiting the kingdom's weaknesses. His ability to keep his large army supplied through plunder and extortion, and to maintain discipline among diverse bands of warriors, underscored his effectiveness as a military leader. The fall of Canterbury, marked by extreme violence, became a symbol of the Danes' ferocity under his command.

A shifting allegiance. In a move characteristic of the age, Thorkell later switched sides, entering King Æthelred's service with a significant portion of his fleet. This pragmatic decision, likely driven by self-interest and perhaps conflict with Sweyn, highlighted the fluid nature of loyalty and the importance of personal power bases over national or ethnic ties. His subsequent position as a powerful figure in England, serving first Æthelred and later Cnut, cemented his reputation as a formidable and opportunistic leader.

6. Cnut's Rise: From Defeated Prince to Master of a North Sea Empire.

Cnut, King of all England, and of Denmark, Norway, and part of Sweden.

Inheriting ambition. Cnut Sweynsson, initially overshadowed by his father Sweyn Forkbeard, faced a challenging start when Sweyn died unexpectedly after conquering England. Cnut's initial attempt to secure the throne failed, forcing him to retreat to Denmark in humiliation. However, this setback proved temporary, fueling his determination to reclaim his father's prize.

Conquest and consolidation. Returning with a powerful army, Cnut engaged in a brutal war against Edmund Ironside, marked by intense battles and shifting alliances. His eventual victory, aided by the death of Edmund and the defection of key Anglo-Saxon nobles like Eadric Streona, allowed him to seize control of England. Cnut then skillfully consolidated his power through strategic marriages, purges of rivals, and the integration of Danish and Anglo-Saxon elites.

An empire built on power. Cnut's reign marked the zenith of Viking influence, creating a vast North Sea Empire that encompassed England, Denmark, Norway, and parts of Sweden. He ruled through a combination of military strength, shrewd political maneuvering, and the effective use of wealth to secure loyalty. His journey to Rome and participation in the imperial coronation demonstrated his status as a major European monarch, a far cry from the young prince who had once fled England.

7. Loyalty Bought and Sold: Alliances Were Fluid in the Pursuit of Power.

They greedily accepted his bribes, and caused a message to be returned to Cnut that they were prepared to receive him whenever he chose to come.

A transactional world. In the Wolf Age, loyalty was often a commodity, bought with silver, land, and promises of power. The constant warfare and political instability meant that allegiances were rarely fixed, and individuals frequently switched sides to advance their own interests or simply survive. Figures like Eadric Streona, who repeatedly betrayed his lords, exemplify this pragmatic approach to survival and ambition.

The price of support. Kings like Æthelred, Sweyn, Olaf, and Cnut relied heavily on mercenaries and the support of powerful local magnates. Maintaining these alliances required continuous generosity, draining royal treasuries and forcing rulers to seek new sources of wealth through conquest or taxation. When a king's resources dwindled, or a rival offered better terms, loyalty could quickly evaporate.

Betrayal and consequence. While shifting allegiances was common, outright betrayal could be met with brutal punishment, as seen in Cnut's execution of Eadric Streona. However, the strategic value of powerful defectors often outweighed the desire for retribution, leading to complex and often uneasy alliances between former enemies. The story of Erling Skjalgsson, who ultimately fell victim to this volatile system, highlights the inherent dangers of navigating such a world.

8. Christianity as a Tool: Faith, Politics, and the Making of Kingdoms.

The first in our law is that we shall bow to the east and pray to the White Christ for good years and peace; that we must keep our land well maintained and wealthy and our king in health.

A new ideology. Christianity spread across Scandinavia not just through missionaries but as a political tool adopted by ambitious kings. The concept of a single, all-powerful God provided a potent ideology for centralizing authority, replacing the fragmented pantheon of the old religion. Kings like Olaf Haraldsson used the Church and its clergy to legitimize their rule, establish administrative structures, and impose new laws and social norms.

Conversion and control. Baptism and conversion ceremonies were often intertwined with acts of political submission and alliance-building. Kings demanded that their followers adopt the new faith, and priests served as loyal agents of royal power, traveling with the court, collecting taxes, and enforcing the king's will. The establishment of churches and bishoprics created a network that helped bind disparate regions together under royal authority.

Blending old and new. The transition to Christianity was often gradual, with elements of the old faith persisting alongside the new. Many people practiced a syncretic religion, praying to both Christ and the old gods. However, the Church actively sought to suppress pagan practices, often with the backing of royal force, leading to the persecution of sorcerers and the destruction of old places of worship, as seen in Olaf's actions in Trøndelag.

9. Olaf's Struggle for Norway: Conquest, Consolidation, and Collapse.

Broad ancestral lands lie under you eastwards towards Eiðar; no warrior has ever before presided over such territory.

Claiming a kingdom. After years of raiding abroad, Olaf Haraldsson returned to Norway with the ambition of uniting the disparate regions under his rule. Leveraging his wealth, military experience, and familial connections, he systematically conquered areas like Vik and Trøndelag, often facing resistance from local chieftains and the remnants of the Jarls of Lade's power. His victory at Nesjar was a crucial step in establishing his authority.

A fragile realm. Olaf's kingdom, though geographically large, was inherently unstable, built on shifting alliances with powerful magnates like Erling Skjalgsson and Thorir Hund. His attempts to centralize power, impose new laws, and promote Christianity often alienated these traditional leaders, who valued their independence and resented the king's demands. His reliance on force and perceived harshness further strained these relationships.

Undermined by Cnut. Cnut's rise to power in England and Denmark posed a direct threat to Olaf's kingdom. Cnut actively worked to undermine Olaf's support in Norway, using his vast wealth to bribe Norwegian chieftains and lure them into his service. This systematic erosion of Olaf's power base, combined with Olaf's own political missteps and dwindling resources, ultimately led to his downfall.

10. The Battle of Stiklestad: A King's Violent End and a Saint's Birth.

Hunger for land and power leads to the deaths of men.

The final gamble. Facing a crumbling kingdom and surrounded by former allies who had defected to Cnut, Olaf Haraldsson launched a desperate attempt to reclaim his throne. Returning from exile in Gardarike with a small, hastily assembled army, he marched towards Trøndelag, hoping to rally support and confront the forces loyal to Cnut's young son, Sweyn.

Defeat and death. At Stiklestad, Olaf's army met a larger force of Norwegian chieftains and peasants who fought in the name of Cnut. Despite the bravery of his hird, Olaf's army was defeated, and the king himself fell in battle. His death marked the end of his tumultuous reign and solidified Cnut's control over Norway.

From king to saint. In a remarkable transformation, the memory of the ambitious and often brutal warrior king was later recast as that of a Christian martyr. Olaf's death in battle, combined with the efforts of his bishop Grimkil and the political needs of the new regime that overthrew Cnut's rule in Norway, led to his canonization. The cult of St Olaf became a powerful symbol of Norwegian identity and independence, ensuring that the king who lost his kingdom would achieve lasting fame in legend and history.

Last updated: May 20, 2025