War

1. War is a Deeply Entwined Aspect of Human Society

If we fail to grasp how deeply intertwined war and human society are—to the point where we cannot say that one predominates over or causes the other—we are missing an important dimension of the human story.

Ancient roots. War is not a recent invention but has been a persistent feature of human existence since the dawn of civilization. Archaeological evidence, such as the Iceman Ötzi with an arrowhead in his shoulder, suggests that organized violence and conflict have been part of human interaction for millennia. Early human societies, even hunter-gatherer bands, engaged in raids, ambushes, and feuds, indicating that war is not simply a product of settled agricultural societies.

War and societal development. The development of organized societies and war are intertwined. Sedentary agricultural societies, with their need for walls and fortifications, spurred the development of specialized training and a warrior class. War, in turn, has driven societal changes, such as the extension of rights and democracy to citizens who participate in defense. Strong nation-states with centralized governments and organized bureaucracies are products of centuries of war.

War's pervasive influence. War's impact extends beyond the battlefield, shaping our language, geography, and culture. Military metaphors permeate our everyday speech, and war memorials dot our towns and cities. Even children's games often reflect the themes of war and conflict. Understanding war's deep integration into human society is crucial for comprehending our world and how we reached this point in history.

2. Greed, Self-Defense, and Ideologies Drive Wars

War in its essence is organized violence, but different societies fight different sorts of wars.

Recurring motives. While the specific triggers for wars may vary, certain underlying motives consistently drive conflict throughout history. These include greed for resources, self-defense against perceived threats, and the pursuit of abstract ideals such as honor, glory, or ideological dominance. These motives can be seen in conflicts ranging from ancient dynastic struggles to modern-day resource wars.

The role of fear. Fear, both of immediate threats and potential future dangers, often plays a significant role in instigating wars. Preventive wars, launched against anticipated threats, are a common example of this. The perception of a rising power or an impending attack can drive nations to take preemptive action, even in the absence of direct aggression.

Ideologies as justification. Ideologies, whether religious, political, or nationalistic, provide a framework for justifying war and mobilizing populations. Wars fought in the name of abstract ideals often exhibit a particular ruthlessness, as the pursuit of a utopian vision can lead to the dehumanization of the enemy and the justification of extreme violence. Civil wars, in particular, often take on the character of a crusade due to the clash of fundamental beliefs and values.

3. Culture Shapes the Ways and Means of War

War forces change and adaptation, and conversely changes in society affect war.

Cultural influence on warfare. The ways in which societies fight wars are deeply influenced by their culture, values, and organization. Nomadic peoples favor wars of movement, while settled agricultural societies rely on fortifications. Societies that value military prowess, such as ancient Sparta, cultivate a warrior ethos that permeates all aspects of life.

Technology and adaptation. Technological advancements constantly reshape the landscape of war, forcing societies to adapt their strategies and tactics. The introduction of metal weapons, the domestication of the horse, and the invention of gunpowder each revolutionized warfare, leading to new forms of organization and training. The development of new technologies often sparks a race between offense and defense, as societies seek to counter emerging threats.

The importance of values. A society's values also play a crucial role in shaping its approach to war. Cultures that prioritize honor and glory may be more willing to engage in aggressive conflict, while those that emphasize peace and diplomacy may seek alternative solutions. The prevalence of violence and war in the past and their persistence in the present raise the awkward question as to whether humans are genetically programmed to fight each other.

4. Modern War is Characterized by Mass Mobilization and Industrialization

Over the centuries war has become more deadly, with greater impact.

Scale and intensity. Modern war, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, has become qualitatively different from earlier forms of conflict. The ability to mobilize vast armies, coupled with the increased lethality of industrialized weaponry, has resulted in unprecedented levels of destruction and casualties. The two world wars of the 20th century saw the emergence of new concepts such as "world war" and "total war," reflecting the global scale and all-encompassing nature of these conflicts.

The home front. The rise of mass mobilization and industrialization has blurred the lines between the battlefield and the home front. Modern war demands the full mobilization of a nation's resources, including its economy, industry, and population. Civilians become integral to the war effort, working in factories, rationing resources, and enduring aerial bombardment.

Technological advancements. The Industrial Revolution brought about a rapid acceleration in the development of new weapons and technologies, transforming the nature of warfare. From the machine gun and the tank to the airplane and the atomic bomb, technological advancements have dramatically increased the destructive potential of war. These advancements have also led to new forms of warfare, such as aerial combat and submarine warfare.

5. The Warrior Ethos is Cultivated Through Culture and Training

In such societies—and they have existed in all times and in many different places—young men, and they are almost invariably men, are brought up by their elders to value such qualities as discipline, bravery and a willingness to die.

Societal values. Societies that engage in frequent warfare often cultivate a warrior ethos, instilling values such as discipline, bravery, and self-sacrifice in their members. Epics, legends, and historical accounts celebrate the deeds of great warriors, providing role models for aspiring soldiers. The culture of chivalry in medieval Europe is a prime example of this, with its emphasis on honor, courage, and loyalty.

Training and indoctrination. Military training plays a crucial role in transforming ordinary individuals into warriors. Through rigorous drills, physical conditioning, and psychological conditioning, recruits are taught to obey orders, suppress their fears, and act as a cohesive unit. The goal is to instill a sense of duty and loyalty that overrides individual self-preservation.

The role of women. While war has traditionally been seen as a male domain, women often play a crucial role in shaping the warrior ethos. Mothers, wives, and sisters may encourage men to fight, celebrate their victories, and mourn their losses. In some societies, women have even taken up arms themselves, defying traditional gender roles.

6. Fighting Involves a Complex Mix of Fear, Duty, and Comradeship

We fear war but we are also fascinated by it.

The psychological toll. Combat is an intensely stressful and traumatic experience that can have profound psychological effects on those who participate. Fear of death, injury, and failure are constant companions, and soldiers often struggle with feelings of guilt, remorse, and moral injury. The psychological toll of war can lead to long-term mental health problems, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Duty and obligation. Despite the fear and trauma, many soldiers are driven by a sense of duty and obligation to their comrades, their country, or their cause. The desire to protect loved ones, uphold values, or fulfill a sense of responsibility can provide the motivation to overcome fear and endure hardship.

Comradeship and bonding. The shared experience of combat can forge strong bonds of comradeship among soldiers. The reliance on one another for survival, the shared hardships, and the sense of belonging to a unit can create a powerful sense of loyalty and affection. This comradeship can be a crucial factor in sustaining morale and cohesion in the face of adversity.

7. Civilians Bear the Brunt of War's Devastation

Peoples have moved or fled, sometimes disappeared literally and from history, because of war.

Disproportionate suffering. While soldiers face the dangers of combat, civilians often bear the brunt of war's devastation. They may be displaced from their homes, subjected to violence and abuse, deprived of food and resources, and caught in the crossfire of battles. The deliberate targeting of civilians has been a recurring feature of warfare throughout history.

The blurring of lines. Modern war has increasingly blurred the lines between combatants and non-combatants, as technological advancements have made it easier to target civilian populations. Aerial bombardment, in particular, has had a devastating impact on cities and towns, leading to mass casualties and widespread destruction.

Long-term consequences. The impact of war on civilians extends far beyond the immediate conflict. War can disrupt social structures, displace communities, and create long-term economic and social problems. The psychological trauma of war can also have lasting effects on individuals and societies.

8. Societies Attempt to Control the Uncontrollable Nature of War

That is why we must keep trying to understand it.

The paradox of control. Despite the inherent chaos and violence of war, societies have long sought to control and regulate its conduct. Attempts to limit the scope of war, protect non-combatants, and prohibit certain weapons reflect a desire to mitigate its destructive effects. However, the pursuit of military advantage often leads to the erosion of these constraints.

The laws of war. Over centuries, a body of international law has developed to govern the conduct of war. These laws, codified in treaties and conventions, aim to establish rules for the treatment of prisoners of war, the protection of civilians, and the prohibition of certain weapons. However, the enforcement of these laws remains a challenge, and violations are common.

The quest for peace. Throughout history, individuals and movements have sought to abolish war altogether. Pacifists, international organizations, and political leaders have advocated for disarmament, diplomacy, and the creation of international institutions to prevent conflict. Despite these efforts, war remains a persistent feature of the human experience.

9. Art Reflects and Shapes Our Understanding of War

Some of our greatest art has been inspired by war or the hatred of war: the Iliad, Beethoven’s “Eroica” Symphony, Benjamin Britten’s War Requiem, Goya’s The Disasters of War, Picasso’s Guernica or Tolstoy’s War and Peace.

Art as a mirror. Art serves as a powerful mirror, reflecting the realities, emotions, and consequences of war. From ancient epics to modern films, artistic representations of war have shaped our understanding of its nature and impact. Art can glorify war, condemn it, or simply attempt to capture its complexities and contradictions.

The power of perspective. The perspective of the artist plays a crucial role in shaping the portrayal of war. Some artists focus on the heroic aspects of combat, while others emphasize the suffering and devastation it inflicts. The experiences of soldiers, civilians, and those on the sidelines can all be captured through art.

Art as a catalyst for change. Art can also serve as a catalyst for social and political change. Anti-war novels, poems, and films can raise awareness of the human costs of conflict and inspire movements for peace. Artistic representations of war can challenge prevailing narratives and promote critical reflection on the causes and consequences of violence.

Last updated: May 11, 2025