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Who Gets What ― and Why

Who Gets What ― and Why

The New Economics of Matchmaking and Market Design
by Alvin E. Roth 2015 260 pages
3.86
3k+ ratings
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Key Takeaways

1. Markets are everywhere and shape our lives in profound ways

Economics is about the efficient allocation of scarce resources, and about making resources less scarce.

Markets permeate our lives. From the moment we wake up, we interact with countless markets that shape our choices and experiences. These range from commodity markets for everyday goods to complex matching markets for important life decisions like education and employment. Markets have evolved over time, with modern technology enabling new forms of exchange like smartphone-based ride-hailing and home-sharing platforms.

Market design matters. How markets are structured significantly impacts their effectiveness and outcomes. Well-designed markets efficiently match buyers and sellers, facilitate information sharing, and create value. Poorly designed markets can lead to inefficiency, unfairness, or failure. Economists increasingly study market design to understand how to engineer better systems.

Key elements of good market design:

  • Thickness: Attracting enough participants
  • Lack of congestion: Ability to process transactions quickly
  • Safety: Ensuring participants can trust the marketplace
  • Simplicity: Making it easy for people to participate effectively

2. Unraveling: When markets move too soon and lose thickness

You can't just inform Yale University that you're enrolling or Google that you're showing up for work. You also have to be admitted or hired.

Timing is crucial in markets. When transactions occur too early, before important information is available, it can lead to poor matches and inefficiency. This phenomenon, known as "unraveling," has been observed in various markets, from college football bowl game selections to hiring for prestigious jobs.

Self-control is often insufficient. Even when participants recognize the collective benefit of waiting, individual incentives often drive them to transact early. This can create a race to be first, leading to a suboptimal outcome for everyone. Market designers have developed various strategies to combat unraveling:

Approaches to prevent unraveling:

  • Enforcing uniform transaction dates
  • Implementing centralized clearinghouses
  • Creating mechanisms that make it safe to reveal true preferences
  • Allowing for easy reneging on early agreements

3. Market congestion: The challenges of processing transactions quickly

Congestion is a little like rush-hour traffic in a big city.

Thick markets can become overwhelmed. When many participants want to transact simultaneously, it can lead to congestion. This is particularly challenging in matching markets where each transaction requires individual consideration, unlike commodity markets where prices can efficiently clear the market.

Design solutions to manage congestion. Market designers have developed various approaches to handle congestion while maintaining the benefits of thick markets:

Strategies to combat congestion:

  • Implementing batch processing of transactions
  • Creating structured timing for offers and responses
  • Utilizing computer algorithms to quickly process complex preferences
  • Designing user interfaces that streamline decision-making

Real-world examples. The redesign of the New York City high school matching system and the National Resident Matching Program for doctors demonstrate how addressing congestion can dramatically improve market outcomes.

4. Trust and safety: Essential components of successful marketplaces

Making markets safe is one of the oldest problems of market design, going back to well before the invention of agriculture, when hunters traded the ax heads and arrowheads that archaeologists today find thousands of miles from where they were made.

Trust underpins exchange. For markets to function effectively, participants need to feel confident that they won't be cheated or harmed. This applies to both physical safety and the reliability of transactions. Historically, rulers played a crucial role in providing safe passage to markets. Today, various mechanisms ensure trust in modern marketplaces.

Building trust in the digital age. Online platforms face unique challenges in creating safe environments for strangers to transact. Successful marketplaces have developed multi-faceted approaches:

Elements of trust-building in online markets:

  • User verification and background checks
  • Review and rating systems
  • Secure payment processing
  • Insurance and guarantees
  • Clear dispute resolution procedures

Balancing transparency and privacy. While sharing information can build trust, markets must also protect users' sensitive data. Finding the right balance is an ongoing challenge for market designers.

5. Signaling: Communicating information effectively in markets

Sometimes a matching process, whether formal or ad hoc, evolves over time. But sometimes, especially recently, it is designed.

Information is crucial, but costly. In many markets, participants have private information that would be valuable to others. However, simply claiming to have desirable qualities is often not credible. Effective signaling mechanisms allow participants to credibly communicate important information.

Designing effective signaling systems. Market designers have developed various approaches to facilitate valuable information exchange:

Signaling strategies in markets:

  • Costly signals (e.g., education as a signal of ability)
  • Limited-use signals (e.g., "roses" in online dating)
  • Revelation mechanisms that make truthful reporting optimal
  • Reputation systems that aggregate past behavior

Applications across domains. Signaling plays a vital role in diverse markets, from job seekers demonstrating their qualifications to companies signaling product quality through warranties. Understanding how to design effective signaling mechanisms is crucial for many market design problems.

6. Repugnant transactions: When society objects to certain exchanges

Let's call a transaction repugnant if some people want to engage in it and other people don't want them to.

Social norms constrain markets. Even when willing buyers and sellers exist, societies often prohibit certain types of transactions deemed morally objectionable. Examples include bans on selling human organs, restrictions on prostitution, and historical prohibitions on charging interest.

Repugnance evolves over time. What is considered repugnant can change dramatically across cultures and historical periods. Market designers must be aware of these social constraints and how they might shift:

Factors influencing repugnance:

  • Concerns about exploitation or coercion
  • Beliefs about human dignity and commodification
  • Fears of negative societal consequences
  • Religious or cultural taboos

Navigating repugnance in design. When addressing pressing social needs that involve potentially repugnant transactions, market designers must find creative solutions. Kidney exchange systems that facilitate donation without direct payment are a prime example of working within social constraints to achieve positive outcomes.

7. Market design: Engineering better marketplaces for the future

Markets are human artifacts, not natural phenomena. Market design gives us a chance to maintain and improve some of humanity's most ancient, essential inventions.

Markets as technologies. Just as we engineer bridges and medicines, we can consciously design better markets. This perspective allows us to address market failures and create new opportunities for beneficial exchange. Market design combines insights from economics, computer science, and other fields to craft rules and mechanisms that achieve desired outcomes.

Principles of good market design:

Key considerations:

  • Aligning incentives of participants
  • Managing the flow of information
  • Balancing competing objectives (e.g., efficiency vs. fairness)
  • Scalability and robustness to strategic behavior
  • Adapting to technological and social changes

The future of market design. As technology advances and social needs evolve, market designers will continue to face new challenges and opportunities. From improving healthcare systems to addressing climate change through market mechanisms, the field has the potential to tackle some of society's most pressing issues.

Last updated:

FAQ

What's Who Gets What ― and Why about?

  • Exploration of Market Design: The book delves into the economics of matchmaking and market design, illustrating how various markets function and sometimes fail.
  • Real-World Examples: Alvin E. Roth uses scenarios like kidney exchanges and school admissions to demonstrate market design principles.
  • Focus on Matching Markets: Roth distinguishes between commodity markets and matching markets, where preferences and compatibility are crucial.

Why should I read Who Gets What ― and Why?

  • Insightful Economic Principles: The book provides valuable insights into how markets can be designed to work better, challenging conventional notions of free markets.
  • Practical Applications: Readers can apply market design concepts to various life aspects, encouraging critical thinking about choices and opportunities.
  • Engaging Storytelling: Roth's narrative style makes complex economic theories accessible and engaging through storytelling.

What are the key takeaways of Who Gets What ― and Why?

  • Importance of Market Design: Effective market design is crucial for efficient and fair resource allocation, solving problems traditional markets can't.
  • Understanding Congestion and Timing: Timing and congestion impact market efficiency, requiring a balance between speed and thoroughness.
  • Role of Trust and Safety: Trust is fundamental in markets, necessitating mechanisms for safety and reliability, especially online.

What is the concept of matchmaking in Who Gets What ― and Why?

  • Definition of Matchmaking: It involves pairing individuals or entities to satisfy mutual preferences and needs, extending beyond romantic relationships.
  • Two-Sided Markets: Matchmaking often involves two-sided markets, requiring careful design to satisfy both parties.
  • Examples of Matchmaking: Programs like the National Resident Matching Program and kidney exchanges illustrate effective matchmaking.

How does Who Gets What ― and Why address market failures?

  • Types of Market Failures: Roth identifies failures like congestion, lack of trust, and poor design, essential for creating effective solutions.
  • Case Studies: Examples like the Boston Public Schools' assignment system show real-world market failures and their consequences.
  • Solutions to Failures: Market design can solve these failures by redesigning processes and systems for efficiency and equity.

What role does trust play in market design according to Who Gets What ― and Why?

  • Foundation of Market Transactions: Trust is essential for confident transactions, preventing market dysfunction and participant loss.
  • Mechanisms for Building Trust: Reputation systems and secure payment methods enhance trust, ensuring safe transactions.
  • Impact on Market Efficiency: Established trust reduces the need for excessive regulation, allowing smoother market operations.

How does Who Gets What ― and Why explain the concept of congestion in markets?

  • Definition of Congestion: It occurs when transaction volume exceeds market capacity, leading to delays and inefficiencies.
  • Examples of Congestion: Situations like the New York City school assignment process illustrate how congestion hinders effective matching.
  • Solutions to Congestion: Strategies like clearinghouses streamline matching processes, ensuring smooth market operations.

What is the significance of the kidney exchange program discussed in Who Gets What ― and Why?

  • Innovative Market Design: The program exemplifies successful market design, allowing incompatible pairs to swap kidneys for more transplants.
  • Addressing Scarcity: It creates a structured marketplace for exchanges, maximizing organ use and saving lives.
  • Lessons for Other Markets: The program's principles can apply to fields like education and labor markets facing similar challenges.

What is the deferred acceptance algorithm mentioned in Who Gets What ― and Why?

  • Centralized Matching Process: It's a method for matching participants in markets like medical residencies, ensuring stable and efficient matches.
  • Step-by-Step Matching: Participants submit ranked preferences, with rounds of tentative offers until stable matching is achieved.
  • Proven Effectiveness: Successfully implemented in various markets, it influences how matching markets are structured.

How does Who Gets What ― and Why address the concept of repugnant markets?

  • Definition of Repugnant Markets: These are markets where some wish to transact while others oppose, often without clear reasons.
  • Cultural and Temporal Variability: Repugnance varies across cultures and time, affecting transaction acceptance.
  • Market Design Implications: Understanding repugnance is crucial for market design, mitigating concerns while addressing demand.

How does Who Gets What ― and Why relate to the concept of strategic decision-making?

  • Strategic Decisions in Markets: Participants make strategic decisions based on others' preferences and behaviors, crucial for complex matching.
  • Game Theory Applications: The book uses game theory to explain interactions in competitive environments, leading to better outcomes.
  • Implications for Market Design: Recognizing strategic decision-making helps create systems accounting for participant behaviors.

How does Who Gets What ― and Why suggest improving existing markets?

  • Implementing Better Designs: Roth advocates redesigning markets to address inefficiencies, using algorithms and centralized systems.
  • Encouraging Participation: Creating safe and efficient markets attracts participation, leading to active engagement.
  • Learning from Successful Examples: Studying successful designs like kidney exchanges informs improvements in other markets.

Review Summary

3.86 out of 5
Average of 3k+ ratings from Goodreads and Amazon.

Who Gets What — and Why explores market design and matching markets, offering insights into how markets function beyond just price. Roth explains concepts like thickness, congestion, and safety in markets, using examples from kidney exchanges to school choice. While some readers found the book insightful and accessible, others criticized it for being repetitive or lacking depth. The author's Nobel Prize-winning work is frequently mentioned, which some viewed as boastful. Overall, the book provides a thought-provoking look at how markets shape our lives and can be engineered for better outcomes.

Your rating:

About the Author

Alvin Elliot Roth is an American economist and professor at Stanford University, previously at Harvard University. He is renowned for his contributions to game theory, market design, and experimental economics. Roth's work focuses on applying economic theory to solve real-world problems. His research has led to practical applications in various fields, including kidney exchange programs and school choice systems. In 2012, Roth was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences jointly with Lloyd Shapley for their work on stable allocations and market design. His approach combines theoretical insights with practical implementation, making complex economic concepts accessible to broader audiences.

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