Against the Gods

1. Ancient Near Eastern studies reveal parallels with biblical narratives

The sum of the evidence is clear: not surprisingly, a biblical story set in Egypt echoes a well-known and popular myth from Egypt.

Cultural context matters. The Old Testament, particularly the early books, shares numerous parallels with ancient Near Eastern literature. These similarities span creation accounts, flood narratives, and hero stories. Researchers have uncovered texts from Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Canaan that bear striking resemblances to biblical tales.

Interpretations vary. Scholars debate the nature of these parallels:

• Some argue for direct borrowing or influence
• Others see common cultural heritage
• Some propose independent development of similar themes
• Biblical scholars often emphasize unique aspects of Hebrew accounts

Understanding these connections provides valuable insight into the cultural and literary context of the Bible, enriching our comprehension of its message and historical setting.

2. Polemical theology in the Old Testament challenges pagan beliefs

Polemical theology is the use by biblical writers of the thought forms and stories that were common in ancient Near Eastern culture to communicate the distinctiveness of the Hebrew concept of God.

Subverting pagan narratives. The Old Testament authors often employed familiar motifs and stories from surrounding cultures, but with a twist. They reframed these elements to assert the supremacy of Yahweh and challenge polytheistic beliefs.

Examples of polemic:

• Creation account emphasizing one sovereign God
• Flood narrative highlighting divine justice and mercy
• Moses' birth story contrasting with Egyptian myths
• Exodus events using Egyptian symbols to mock pagan deities

This approach served to:

1. Make the message relatable to the original audience
2. Demonstrate the uniqueness of Hebrew monotheism
3. Assert the power of Yahweh over other gods
4. Critique and refute pagan religious concepts

3. Genesis creation account uniquely portrays a monotheistic worldview

Genesis 1 denies that there was any physical element in existence prior to God's creative labors. He simply created the universe ex nihilo ("out of nothing").

Radical monotheism. Unlike other ancient Near Eastern creation accounts, Genesis presents a single, all-powerful God who creates everything from nothing. This concept stands in stark contrast to polytheistic myths involving multiple deities and preexistent matter.

Key distinctions of the Genesis account:

• One transcendent Creator God
• Creation ex nihilo (out of nothing)
• Orderly, purposeful creation process
• Humans as image-bearers of God
• No theogony (birth of gods)
• Absence of divine conflict or struggle

The Genesis narrative, while sharing some surface-level similarities with other ancient accounts, presents a fundamentally different worldview. It establishes the foundation for Hebrew monotheism and the unique relationship between God and humanity.

4. Flood narratives across cultures share similarities but differ in theology

The biblical writers often use polemical theology to counter ancient pagan myths that are noxious to the Hebrew faith centered on monotheism.

Common motif, distinct message. Flood narratives appear in many ancient cultures, including Mesopotamian epics like Gilgamesh and Atrahasis. While these stories share elements with the biblical account of Noah, crucial theological differences emerge.

Key contrasts in the biblical flood account:

• One sovereign God, not competing deities
• Divine judgment based on moral grounds
• Preservation of righteous individuals
• Establishment of a covenant relationship
• Emphasis on God's mercy and new beginning

The biblical author likely knew of other flood traditions but reshaped the narrative to convey core Hebrew theological concepts. This approach allowed the writer to engage with familiar cultural ideas while asserting the uniqueness of Yahweh and His relationship with humanity.

5. The birth of Moses echoes Egyptian myths with crucial distinctions

The biblical writer utilized the venerable Horus myth in order to present Moses as equal to Pharaoh. The young Moses is akin to the young Horus, the latter a mythic equal of the living Pharaoh.

Subverting Egyptian mythology. The story of Moses' birth and early life bears similarities to Egyptian myths, particularly the tale of Horus. However, the biblical account transforms these elements to challenge Egyptian religious beliefs and assert Yahweh's supremacy.

Key differences in Moses' story:

• Historical narrative, not mythological
• Emphasis on divine providence, not magical protection
• Moses as servant of Yahweh, not incarnation of a god
• Critique of Pharaoh's claims to divinity
• Focus on deliverance of an entire people

By echoing familiar mythic elements, the biblical author engages the cultural context while subverting expectations. This approach serves to elevate Yahweh above Egyptian deities and present Moses as a divinely appointed leader for Israel.

6. Exodus events employ Egyptian symbols to assert Yahweh's supremacy

The irony of the matter is that the two Hebrew leaders possessed a rod, a highly esteemed Egyptian emblem, in order to humiliate and defeat the Egyptians.

Symbolic subversion. Throughout the Exodus narrative, familiar Egyptian symbols and magical practices are co-opted and transformed to demonstrate Yahweh's power over Egyptian deities and Pharaoh.

Examples of symbolic polemic in Exodus:

• Moses' staff swallowing the magicians' staffs
• Plagues targeting specific Egyptian gods
• Passover contrasting with Egyptian rituals
• Parting of the Red Sea as divine act, not magic

This use of Egyptian cultural elements serves multiple purposes:

1. Engages the immediate audience's cultural context
2. Demonstrates Yahweh's superiority over Egyptian gods
3. Mocks and undermines Egyptian religious claims
4. Establishes Israel's unique identity and relationship with Yahweh

7. Red Sea crossing narrative counters Egyptian magical traditions

What was mythic in Egyptian literature has become real and factual in time and history as recorded by the biblical writer.

Historical reality vs. mythic imagination. The account of the Red Sea crossing bears similarities to Egyptian magical tales, such as the story of Djadjaemonkh parting a lake. However, the biblical narrative presents this event as historical fact, not myth or magic.

Contrasts with Egyptian magical tales:

• Historical narrative, not mythological story
• Divine power, not human magic
• National deliverance, not personal gain
• Establishing covenant relationship, not entertainment

The biblical author likely draws on familiar cultural motifs to present a radically different understanding of divine action in history. This approach serves to:

1. Ground Israel's identity in historical events
2. Demonstrate Yahweh's supreme power over nature
3. Contrast true miracles with magical illusions
4. Establish the foundation for Israel's covenant relationship with God

Last updated: August 2, 2024