Diplomacy

1. The Nation-State and National Interest: Cornerstones of Modern Diplomacy

Almost as if according to some natural law, in every century there seems to emerge a country with the power, the will, and the intellectual and moral impetus to shape the entire international system in accordance with its own values.

Emergence of the Nation-State. The modern approach to international relations, based on the nation-state and driven by national interest, arose in the 17th century, largely through the efforts of Cardinal Richelieu of France. This marked a shift from universal moral and religious principles to a more pragmatic, state-centric approach.

National Interest as Motivation. Richelieu's concept of raison d'état (reason of state) prioritized the well-being and security of the nation above all else, justifying actions based on national interest, even if they contradicted traditional moral or religious norms. This principle became a guiding force in international politics.

Impact on Diplomacy. The rise of the nation-state and the emphasis on national interest transformed diplomacy from a religiously influenced endeavor to a strategic game of power, where states sought to maximize their own advantages and secure their survival in a competitive international environment.

2. Balance of Power: A System of Stability, Not Necessarily Peace

By definition, a balance-of-power arrangement cannot satisfy every member of the international system completely; it works best when it keeps dissatisfaction below the level at which the aggrieved party will seek to overthrow the international order.

Maintaining Equilibrium. The balance of power system, which emerged in Europe after the collapse of the medieval dream of universal empire, aimed to prevent any single state from dominating the others. This was achieved through shifting alliances and counterbalancing coalitions.

Stability over Peace. The balance of power system did not guarantee peace, but rather sought to limit the scope and intensity of conflicts. Its primary goal was to maintain stability and prevent any one power from achieving hegemony, even if it meant engaging in frequent, limited wars.

Rare Occurrence. Balance-of-power systems have been rare in human history, existing primarily among the city-states of ancient Greece, Renaissance Italy, and the European state system after the Peace of Westphalia. Most of the world has been governed by empires, which have no interest in operating within an international system.

3. American Exceptionalism: A Unique Approach to Foreign Policy

No society has more firmly insisted on the inadmissibility of intervention in the domestic affairs of other states, or more passionately asserted that its own values were universally applicable.

Two Contradictory Attitudes. American foreign policy has been characterized by two conflicting impulses: the desire to perfect democracy at home and serve as a beacon for the world, and the belief that America has an obligation to actively promote its values abroad.

Idealism and Pragmatism. This tension between isolationism and interventionism has shaped America's approach to international relations, leading to a unique blend of idealism and pragmatism. American leaders often seek to promote democracy, free commerce, and international law, but also recognize the need to protect American interests and engage in power politics.

Triumph of Faith over Experience. America's journey through international politics has been marked by a strong belief in its own ideals and a tendency to view the world through a moral lens. This has led to both remarkable achievements and significant challenges, as America has sought to reconcile its values with the complexities of global affairs.

4. The Congress of Vienna: A Concerted Effort for European Order

The statesmen at Vienna were aristocrats who saw intangibles in the same way, and agreed on fundamentals; the American leaders who shaped the postwar world emerged from an intellectual tradition of extraordinary coherence and vitality.

Restoring Equilibrium. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) aimed to restore the balance of power in Europe and prevent future French aggression. The peacemakers consolidated Central Europe into the German Confederation and formed the Quadruple Alliance to block French expansionism.

Shared Values and Moral Restraint. The Congress of Vienna was unique in its emphasis on shared values and moral restraint. The statesmen, largely aristocrats, sought to moderate international conduct through moral and legal bonds, rather than relying solely on power politics.

A Lasting Peace. The Congress of Vienna established a period of relative peace in Europe, lasting for nearly a century. This was due to the balance of power, the shared values among the Great Powers, and the creation of a system of European congresses to address major conflicts.

5. Realpolitik: Power Politics Unveiled

In matters of state, he who has the power often has the right, and he who is weak can only with difficulty keep from being wrong in the opinion of the majority of the world.

Primacy of Power. Realpolitik, a term derived from German, emphasizes the pursuit of national interests through the exercise of power, often disregarding moral or ideological considerations. It prioritizes pragmatism and strategic calculation over ethical concerns.

Bismarck's Mastery. Otto von Bismarck, the "Iron Chancellor" of Germany, was a master of Realpolitik. He used power politics to unify Germany, skillfully manipulating alliances and exploiting rivalries to achieve his goals.

Limitations of Realpolitik. While Realpolitik can be effective in achieving short-term objectives, it can also lead to overextension and a disregard for long-term consequences. The pursuit of power without moral constraints can create a ruthless and unforgiving international environment.

6. The Eastern Question: A Catalyst for European Rivalry

Torn between obsessive insecurity and proselytizing zeal, between the requirements of Europe and the temptations of Asia, the Russian Empire always had a role in the European equilibrium but was never emotionally a part of it.

Decline of the Ottoman Empire. The "Eastern Question" refers to the strategic and political problems created by the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. This decline created a power vacuum in the Balkans and the Eastern Mediterranean, leading to intense competition among the Great Powers.

Russian Expansionism. Russia sought to expand its influence in the Balkans, often under the guise of protecting Slavic and Orthodox populations. This brought it into conflict with Austria-Hungary, which also had interests in the region.

British Interests. Great Britain was concerned with maintaining control of the Mediterranean and preventing Russia from gaining access to the Straits, which would threaten British interests in India. The Eastern Question became a major source of tension and conflict in Europe, contributing to the outbreak of the Crimean War and the eventual collapse of the Concert of Europe.

7. World War I: The Failure of European Diplomacy

At no time in its history has America participated in a balance-of-power system.

Breakdown of the Balance of Power. By the late 19th century, the European balance of power system had become rigid and inflexible. Entangling alliances and a growing arms race created a dangerous environment in which a minor conflict could escalate into a general war.

Nationalism and Imperialism. Rising nationalism and intense competition for colonies further exacerbated tensions among the Great Powers. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo triggered a chain reaction that drew all of Europe into war.

The Catastrophe. The First World War was a devastating conflict that shattered the foundations of European civilization. It resulted in millions of casualties, the collapse of empires, and the rise of new ideologies. The war also marked the end of Europe's dominance in world affairs and the emergence of the United States as a major power.

8. Wilsonian Idealism vs. European Realism: A Clash of Worldviews

Clearly, Wilson had come not so much to discuss the terms for ending a war or for restoring the existing international order, as he had to recast a whole system of international relations as it had been practiced for nearly three centuries.

Wilson's Vision. Woodrow Wilson, the American president during World War I, sought to replace the European balance of power system with a new international order based on democracy, self-determination, and collective security. He envisioned a world in which states would act as cooperative partners, not as distrustful rivals.

European Skepticism. European leaders, hardened by centuries of power politics, were skeptical of Wilson's idealism. They sought to preserve their own interests and maintain the existing international order, rather than embracing a radical transformation.

The League of Nations. Wilson's attempt to create a League of Nations to enforce collective security ultimately failed, as the United States Senate refused to ratify the treaty. This marked a setback for American idealism and a return to the more pragmatic approach of European diplomacy.

9. The Cold War: A Clash of Ideologies and Geopolitical Interests

There are two tragedies in life. One is to lose your heart’s desire. The other is to gain it.

Ideological Struggle. The Cold War was a global conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, driven by ideological differences, geopolitical competition, and the threat of nuclear annihilation. The United States sought to contain the spread of communism, while the Soviet Union aimed to expand its influence and promote its ideology.

Spheres of Influence. The Cold War led to the establishment of spheres of influence in Europe and Asia, with the United States and the Soviet Union supporting rival blocs of countries. This created a divided world, characterized by proxy wars, arms races, and constant tension.

Containment. The United States adopted a policy of containment, seeking to prevent the expansion of communism by building alliances, providing economic aid, and intervening militarily in key regions. This policy shaped American foreign policy for over four decades.

10. The Post-Cold War World: A New Era of Complexity

Never before has a new world order had to be assembled from so many different perceptions, or on so global a scale.

Collapse of the Soviet Union. The end of the Cold War marked a profound shift in the international order. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the emergence of new states, new power centers, and new sources of instability.

Globalization and Fragmentation. The post-Cold War world is characterized by both growing globalization and increasing fragmentation. Communications are instantaneous, the world economy operates on all continents simultaneously, and a whole set of issues has surfaced that can only be dealt with on a worldwide basis.

The American Role. The United States faces the challenge of navigating this complex new world order, balancing its values with its geopolitical necessities. Reconciling differing values and very different historical experiences among countries of comparable significance will be a novel experience.

Last updated: March 7, 2025