On War

1. War is a Political Act, Not an End in Itself

War is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of political commerce, a carrying out of the same by other means.

Policy over Power. Clausewitz asserts that war is never an isolated act of violence, but rather an instrument of policy. It's a continuation of political intercourse, carried on with different means. This perspective emphasizes that war should always serve a political objective, and military actions must align with and support that objective.

Subordination of the Military. The political aim is the defining purpose, and war is simply the means. This means that military strategy should be subordinate to political goals. The statesman must always have the upper hand, ensuring that military actions do not contradict or undermine the broader political objectives.

Variable Intensity. The political motives behind a war dictate its intensity and scope. A war fought for survival will be far more intense and destructive than a war fought for a minor territorial concession. Understanding the political context is crucial for determining the appropriate level of military effort.

2. The Aim of War is to Disarm the Enemy

In order to attain this object fully, the enemy must be disarmed, and disarmament becomes therefore the immediate object of hostilities in theory.

Submission through Force. The ultimate aim of war is to compel the enemy to submit to our will. This requires rendering the enemy incapable of further resistance, effectively disarming them. Disarmament can be physical, such as destroying their military forces, or moral, such as breaking their will to fight.

Theoretical Ideal vs. Practical Reality. While complete disarmament is the theoretical ideal, it's rarely achieved in practice. Wars often end before one side is completely disarmed, due to factors like the improbability of total victory or the excessive cost of continuing the conflict.

Motives for Peace. When complete disarmament is unattainable, the decision to make peace hinges on a calculation of probabilities and costs. Belligerents weigh the likelihood of future success against the sacrifices required to achieve it, and peace becomes an attractive option when the costs outweigh the potential gains.

3. Moral Forces are Paramount in War

If War is an act of force, it belongs necessarily also to the feelings.

Beyond the Physical. War is not solely a matter of physical strength and material resources. Moral forces, such as courage, national spirit, and the will to fight, play a crucial role in determining the outcome. These intangible factors can often outweigh purely numerical advantages.

The Role of Feelings. War is deeply intertwined with human emotions. Hostility, hatred, and fear are all powerful motivators that can influence the conduct of war. Even in the most civilized nations, these emotions can erupt and shape the course of events.

The Commander's Influence. The moral qualities of the commander, such as their strength of mind, resolution, and ability to inspire confidence, are essential for maintaining morale and directing the army effectively. A commander's character can have a profound impact on the performance of their troops.

4. Strategy Dictates the "What," Tactics the "How"

Strategy is the theory of the use of combats for the object of the War.

Levels of War. Clausewitz distinguishes between tactics and strategy as distinct but interconnected levels of war. Tactics deals with the employment of military forces in combat, focusing on the execution of battles and engagements. Strategy, on the other hand, concerns the use of these combats to achieve the overall objectives of the war.

The Chain of Command. Strategy sets the goals and provides the framework for military action, while tactics executes those goals on the battlefield. Strategy determines what needs to be done, and tactics determines how to do it.

Interdependence. While distinct, tactics and strategy are not mutually exclusive. Tactical successes can contribute to strategic goals, and strategic considerations can influence tactical decisions. The two are intertwined in a constant reciprocal relationship.

5. Superiority in Numbers is a Cornerstone of Victory

The superiority in numbers being a material condition, it was chosen from amongst all the factors required to produce victory, because it could be brought under mathematical laws through combinations of time and space.

The Power of Mass. While not the only factor, superiority in numbers is a fundamental principle of victory in war. Bringing a greater force to bear at the decisive point increases the likelihood of success. This principle applies to both tactics and strategy.

Relative Superiority. Achieving numerical superiority doesn't always require having a larger army overall. It can also be achieved by concentrating forces at a specific point, creating a local advantage even if the enemy has more troops in total.

Limitations of Numbers. While important, numerical superiority is not a guarantee of victory. Other factors, such as the quality of troops, the skill of the commander, and the terrain, can all influence the outcome of a battle. However, a significant numerical advantage can often overcome these disadvantages.

6. Surprise and Stratagem Can Amplify Force

There is no human affair which stands so constantly and so generally in close connection with chance as War.

The Element of Chance. War is inherently uncertain, and chance plays a significant role in determining outcomes. Surprise and stratagem can exploit this uncertainty, creating opportunities for success that might not otherwise exist.

Secrecy and Speed. Surprise relies on two key factors: secrecy and speed. By concealing intentions and acting swiftly, a commander can catch the enemy off guard and gain a decisive advantage.

Moral Impact. Surprise has a significant moral impact on the enemy, sowing confusion, fear, and disarray. This can lead to a breakdown in morale and discipline, making them more vulnerable to defeat.

7. Boldness, Tempered by Reason, Defines a Great Commander

In daring there may still be wisdom, and prudence as well, only they are estimated by a different standard of value.

Courage and Calculation. Boldness is an essential virtue for a military commander, but it must be tempered by reason and judgment. Blind recklessness is not the same as calculated risk-taking.

Overcoming Doubt. A bold commander is able to overcome the doubts and hesitations that plague ordinary minds. They have the courage to make difficult decisions and take decisive action, even in the face of uncertainty.

The Hero's Stamp. Boldness, guided by intelligence, is the hallmark of a great military leader. It allows them to seize opportunities, exploit enemy weaknesses, and achieve extraordinary results.

8. Perseverance is Essential to Overcome War's Friction

Everything is very simple in War, but the simplest thing is difficult.

The Fog of War. War is characterized by immense friction, a term Clausewitz uses to describe the myriad of difficulties and obstacles that impede military operations. These include danger, physical exertion, imperfect information, and chance.

Overcoming Resistance. A strong will and unwavering perseverance are essential for overcoming the friction of war. A commander must be able to push through obstacles, maintain momentum, and keep their army focused on the objective.

The Test of Leadership. The ability to persevere in the face of adversity is a key test of leadership. A great commander can inspire their troops to endure hardship, overcome setbacks, and ultimately achieve victory.

9. Theory Guides, But Genius Decides

The passions which break forth in War must already have a latent existence in the peoples.

The Limits of Theory. While theory can provide valuable insights and guidance, it cannot replace the need for talent, judgment, and experience. War is too complex and unpredictable to be governed by rigid rules or formulas.

The Role of Genius. Genius is the ability to adapt to unforeseen circumstances, make sound decisions in the face of uncertainty, and inspire others to achieve extraordinary feats. It is an essential ingredient for success in war.

Theory as a Compass. Theory should serve as a compass, guiding the commander's understanding and informing their decisions, but not dictating their actions. The commander must always be prepared to deviate from theory when circumstances demand it.

10. Criticism Bridges Theory and Practice

The War of a community—of whole Nations, and particularly of civilised Nations—always starts from a political condition, and is called forth by a political motive.

Learning from History. Criticism, the analysis and evaluation of past military events, is essential for bridging the gap between theory and practice. By studying history, commanders can learn from the successes and failures of others.

Identifying Causes and Effects. Effective criticism involves tracing events back to their underlying causes and assessing the effectiveness of the means employed. This requires a deep understanding of both military theory and historical context.

Developing Judgment. Criticism helps to develop the judgment and insight necessary for making sound decisions in war. It allows commanders to refine their understanding of the principles of war and apply them effectively in real-world situations.

11. The Strong Defensive Can Create a Stalemate

If the form of defence is stronger than that of offence, as we shall hereafter show, the question arises, Is the advantage of a deferred decision as great on the one side as the advantage of the defensive form on the other?

Defense as a Powerful Form. Clausewitz posits that the defensive form of warfare is inherently stronger than the offensive. This is because the defender typically enjoys advantages such as better knowledge of the terrain, prepared positions, and the ability to choose the time and place of engagement.

The Calculus of Delay. When one side benefits from delaying a decision, the other must weigh the advantages of forcing an immediate confrontation against the inherent strength of the defensive. If the defensive advantage outweighs the benefit of a quick resolution, a stalemate can ensue.

Inaction Explained. The superiority of the defensive explains many periods of inaction in war. A weaker side may choose to endure unfavorable prospects in the future rather than risk an immediate offensive or a disadvantageous peace. This dynamic contributes to the ebb and flow of conflict.

Last updated: April 15, 2025