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Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789

Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789

by Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks 2006 510 pages
3.97
100+ ratings
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Key Takeaways

1. Europe's "Early Modern" Era: A Shifting Concept

As concepts, “modernity” and “modernization” are teleological and totalizing, implying that history developed on a single linear trajectory with a final act.

Challenging the Narrative. The term "early modern" is not a clear-cut historical period but a construct, a way of dividing history that emerged from a specific European perspective. It implies a linear progression towards "modernity," a concept that is itself problematic and Eurocentric. This periodization, often marked by the Renaissance, Reformation, and voyages of discovery, is not universally applicable and overlooks the complexities and continuities of history.

Beyond Simple Divisions. The traditional division of history into ancient, medieval, and modern is increasingly seen as inadequate. The voyages of Columbus, for example, were driven by religious zeal as much as a "modern" desire for exploration. Similarly, the Protestant Reformation was a reform movement, not a complete break from the past. The idea of a single path to modernity is being questioned, with scholars recognizing multiple trajectories and diverse experiences.

Rethinking "Europe". The very definition of "Europe" is also a cultural construct, not a simple geographical fact. The idea of Europe as a distinct entity emerged in the early modern period, often in opposition to the "East." Its boundaries are fluid and contested, and its history is intertwined with that of other regions. The term "Europe" is a way of creating a boundary between "us" and "them," and it is important to recognize the subjectivity of this concept.

2. Global Connections: Trade, Travel, and Transformation

In the first half of the sixteenth century, other humanists began to use the terms “Europe” and “Europeans” more regularly, and map-makers began to print maps of Europe as a separate continent.

Beyond Localism. While most Europeans lived relatively isolated lives, a network of trade, travel, and exploration connected them to the wider world. Merchants like Marco Polo, though his tales were exaggerated, inspired others to seek new routes and opportunities. The Medieval Warm Period facilitated travel and trade, but the subsequent Little Ice Age brought challenges.

Motives for Travel. Economic gain was a major driver of exploration, with merchants seeking new sources of goods and markets. Religious motives also played a role, with pilgrimages to holy sites and missionary efforts to spread Christianity. These motives often intertwined, with merchants writing "in the name of God and profit." The Crusades, though religiously motivated, also had significant economic and political consequences.

Expanding Horizons. Portuguese voyages down the African coast led to the discovery of Atlantic islands and the establishment of trade with the Mali Empire. These voyages, along with the development of new navigational technologies, laid the groundwork for future European expansion. However, the widening of geographic horizons was not a one-way process, as the Little Ice Age and the decline of the Mongol Empire disrupted existing trade routes and connections.

3. Social Hierarchies: Orders, Gender, and Identity

Social, economic, gender, and ethnic hierarchies thus intersected in complex ways in society as a whole in the fifteenth century, and their impact on any single individual was similarly complex.

Beyond the Tripartite Model. The traditional division of society into those who fight (nobles), those who pray (clergy), and those who work (peasants) was an oversimplification. Society was far more complex, with significant variations within each group. Urban dwellers, Jews, and Muslims were largely excluded from this model.

Overlapping Hierarchies. Social rank, or "estate," was based on birth, function, and sometimes wealth. Status was also tied to concepts of honor, with certain occupations and activities considered more honorable than others. Gender created another hierarchy, with men generally considered superior to women, though this was not always absolute.

Fluid Identities. Concepts of kinship, culture, and geographic location also shaped identity. Terms like "tribe," "people," "race," and "nation" were used to describe these groups, often with a focus on blood and ancestry. Religious beliefs also became markers of identity, with people seen as having "Jewish blood," "Muslim blood," or "Christian blood." Skin color also began to be used as a marker of difference, with Europeans increasingly defining themselves as "white."

4. Political Landscape: Fragmented Power, Local Control

Throughout all of Europe, then, the mid-fifteenth century was a period in which political boundaries were shifting, as was the importance of different types of boundaries.

Shifting Boundaries. The political map of Europe in 1450 was characterized by shifting boundaries and fragmented power. The Hundred Years' War between England and France was coming to an end, but regional loyalties remained strong. Germany and Italy were divided into hundreds of different political units, with overlapping jurisdictions.

Local Autonomy. While territorial rulers held power, local institutions also played a significant role. Villages developed communes with institutions of self-governance, regulating local affairs. Towns and cities had charters that established administrative and supervisory offices, with considerable autonomy from higher authorities.

Ottoman Expansion. The Ottoman Empire was a major political force in the mid-fifteenth century, controlling much of Greece and the Balkans. The Ottomans developed centralized imperial institutions, but also co-opted existing local and religious authorities. The empire's diverse population included Muslims, Christians, and Jews, with varying degrees of autonomy.

5. Cultural and Intellectual Life: Religion, Humanism, and Vernacular

By the middle of the fifteenth century, humanist schools had opened in French and German as well as Italian cities, and gradually humanist education became the basis for intermediate and advanced education for a large share of the male middle-and upper-class population.

Religious Foundations. Cultural and intellectual life was still closely linked to religion. Monasteries, convents, and cathedral schools were the main avenues to literacy. Universities, which grew out of these schools, taught law, medicine, theology, and philosophy in Latin.

Humanist Innovation. Humanism, which emerged in Italian cities, emphasized classical literature and history. Humanists viewed education in the classics as the best preparation for a career in business or politics. They promoted a life active in the world and a focus on the public good.

Vernacular Literatures. Alongside Latin, vernacular languages began to be used for literature and official records. This led to the development of literary languages like Italian, French, and English, and broadened the circle of literate individuals. However, it also created new boundaries between those who spoke different languages.

6. Religious Practices: Rituals, Institutions, and Diversity

By the fifteenth century, every major life transition was marked by religious rituals for Christians.

Hierarchical Structures. The Christian church in western Europe was a hierarchy headed by the pope, with bishops, priests, monks, and nuns. The Orthodox Church in eastern Europe had a different structure, with a patriarch in Constantinople and local churches with considerable autonomy.

Rituals and Beliefs. Religious life was marked by rituals and practices, including processions, pilgrimages, prayers to saints, and confession. Life transitions like birth, marriage, and death were marked by religious ceremonies. The calendar was also set according to religious periods and days.

Religious Diversity. Alongside Christianity, there were also Jewish and Muslim communities in Europe. Each religion had its own rituals, practices, and institutions. Jewish religious life centered on schools, rabbinical courts, and temples, while Muslim religious life was marked by prayer at mosques and study at Qur'anic schools.

7. Economic Shifts: Capitalism, Guilds, and Environment

Making cloth was one of the first types of production in Europe to be organized along capitalist lines, in which the raw materials, finished product, and sometimes the tools needed for production were owned by someone other than the person doing the actual work.

Emerging Capitalism. Capitalism began to emerge in the fifteenth century, particularly in the cloth industry. Merchants and bankers invested in production, hiring wage workers and controlling the means of production. Mining was also a capitalist enterprise, with investors funding deeper tunnels and more complex processes.

Guild Regulations. Craft guilds organized the production and sale of many goods, regulating hours, wages, and quality standards. Guilds were led by master craftsmen and often prohibited non-members from trading in the town.

Environmental Impact. Economic activities had a significant environmental impact. Mining polluted rivers and deforested hillsides. The expansion of agriculture led to changes in land use. These environmental changes were often overlooked in the pursuit of economic growth.

8. The Interplay of Change and Continuity

Although we recognize that 1450 marks the beginning of much greater European interaction with the rest of the world, it is doubtful whether many people living in that year would have noticed this trend.

Gradual Transformation. The mid-fifteenth century was a period of both change and continuity. While new ideas and technologies were emerging, many aspects of life remained the same. Most people continued to live in rural villages, working the land and following traditional practices.

Unseen Shifts. Many of the changes that would later define the early modern period were not immediately apparent to people living in 1450. The impact of the printing press, the voyages of discovery, and the rise of capitalism would take time to unfold.

Complex Interactions. The various aspects of life – social, political, cultural, religious, and economic – were interconnected and influenced each other. Changes in one area often had ripple effects in others. The early modern period was a time of complex interactions and transformations, not a simple linear progression.

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FAQ

What's "Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789" by Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks about?

  • Comprehensive Overview: The book provides a detailed examination of European history from the invention of the printing press to the French Revolution, covering political, economic, religious, and cultural developments.
  • Global Context: It places European developments within a global context, highlighting interactions with other parts of the world through trade, exploration, and colonization.
  • Diverse Perspectives: The author integrates discussions of gender, class, and regional and ethnic differences, offering a multifaceted view of the period.
  • Educational Tools: The book includes summaries, timelines, maps, illustrations, and discussion questions to support student learning.

Why should I read "Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789"?

  • Updated Scholarship: The third edition is thoroughly updated with new scholarship, making it a current and reliable resource for understanding early modern European history.
  • Interdisciplinary Approach: It emphasizes environmental history, travel and migration, race and cultural blending, and the circulation of goods and knowledge, appealing to a wide range of interests.
  • Skill Development: The book provides enhanced online content and sections on sources and methodology, equipping students with the tools needed to study history effectively.
  • Author Expertise: Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks is a distinguished historian with extensive experience in writing textbooks, ensuring a well-researched and authoritative narrative.

What are the key takeaways of "Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789"?

  • Historical Periodization: The book challenges traditional periodization by exploring the complexities of defining "early modern" and "Europe."
  • Cultural and Social Dynamics: It highlights the importance of cultural and social dynamics, including the roles of gender, class, and ethnicity in shaping history.
  • Global Interactions: The narrative emphasizes Europe's interactions with the rest of the world, illustrating the interconnectedness of global history.
  • Continuity and Change: The book balances discussions of continuity and change, providing a nuanced understanding of historical developments.

How does Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks approach the concept of "early modern" in the book?

  • Problematic Notion: The author discusses the problematic nature of the term "early modern," noting that many processes associated with modernity began earlier.
  • Flexible Chronology: The book uses a flexible chronology, starting around 1450 with the invention of the printing press and ending with the French Revolution.
  • Interdisciplinary Insights: It incorporates insights from various fields, such as environmental history and global history, to provide a comprehensive view of the period.
  • Critical Examination: Wiesner-Hanks critically examines the assumptions underlying the concept of modernity, encouraging readers to question traditional narratives.

What role does the printing press play in "Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789"?

  • Catalyst for Change: The invention of the printing press is highlighted as a catalyst for social and cultural change, facilitating the spread of ideas and literacy.
  • Mass Production: The book discusses how the printing press led to the mass production of books, making information more accessible to a wider audience.
  • Religious Impact: It explores the impact of printing on religious debates, particularly during the Reformation, as printed materials spread new religious ideas.
  • Economic Influence: The printing industry is examined as an early example of capitalist enterprise, influencing economic structures and trade.

How does the book address the concept of "Europe"?

  • Cultural Construct: The book presents "Europe" as a cultural construct rather than a strictly geographical entity, shaped by historical narratives and interactions.
  • Geographical Boundaries: It discusses the fluidity of Europe's geographical boundaries, particularly in relation to the Ottoman Empire and Russia.
  • Historical Context: The narrative places Europe within a broader historical context, examining its role in global history and its interactions with other regions.
  • Identity and Difference: The book explores how Europeans defined themselves in opposition to others, using concepts like race and religion to create boundaries.

What are the major themes explored in "Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789"?

  • Social Hierarchies: The book examines social hierarchies based on class, gender, and ethnicity, and their impact on individuals' opportunities and experiences.
  • Political Developments: It covers political developments, including the rise of nation-states and the role of warfare and diplomacy in shaping boundaries.
  • Cultural Shifts: The narrative highlights cultural shifts, such as the Renaissance and the Reformation, and their influence on European society.
  • Economic Changes: The book discusses economic changes, including the rise of capitalism and the impact of trade and exploration on European economies.

How does Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks integrate gender into the narrative?

  • Gender Roles: The book explores traditional gender roles and their impact on individuals' lives, highlighting the limitations and opportunities faced by women.
  • Intersectionality: It examines the intersection of gender with other social categories, such as class and ethnicity, to provide a nuanced understanding of social dynamics.
  • Historical Examples: The narrative includes historical examples of women who challenged gender norms, illustrating the complexity of gender relations.
  • Scholarly Debates: Wiesner-Hanks engages with scholarly debates on gender, offering insights into how historians have interpreted gender roles in early modern Europe.

What insights does the book offer on Europe's interactions with the world?

  • Exploration and Colonization: The book discusses European exploration and colonization, highlighting the motivations and consequences of these activities.
  • Cultural Exchange: It examines cultural exchanges between Europe and other regions, including the transfer of goods, ideas, and technologies.
  • Impact of Trade: The narrative explores the impact of trade on European economies and societies, emphasizing the interconnectedness of global markets.
  • Postcolonial Perspectives: Wiesner-Hanks incorporates postcolonial perspectives, encouraging readers to consider the long-term effects of European expansion.

What are the best quotes from "Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789" and what do they mean?

  • "The voyages of Columbus may have marked the beginning of European exploration and colonization, but there was plenty of earlier contact between Europeans and other cultures." This quote challenges the notion that Columbus's voyages were the sole starting point of European global interactions.
  • "The idea of 'Europe' is thus much like the notion of 'modern' – that is, a term used consciously by people to differentiate themselves from others." It highlights how concepts like "Europe" and "modern" are constructed to create boundaries and identities.
  • "Historians continue to ask 'What can we learn about the past?' but they put greater emphasis on why we know what we do." This quote emphasizes the importance of understanding the sources and perspectives that shape historical narratives.
  • "The book covers the basic events long identified with this period – the Renaissance, the Reformation, the rise of capitalism, the voyages of discovery, the growth of the nation-state, the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment." It summarizes the key historical events and themes explored in the book.

How does the book address the role of religion in early modern Europe?

  • Religious Institutions: The book examines the role of religious institutions, such as the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, in shaping European society.
  • Reformation Impact: It discusses the impact of the Protestant Reformation on religious practices, beliefs, and institutions across Europe.
  • Religious Conflicts: The narrative explores religious conflicts, including wars and persecutions, and their influence on political and social dynamics.
  • Everyday Practices: Wiesner-Hanks highlights the role of religion in everyday life, including rituals, festivals, and the calendar, illustrating its pervasive influence.

What methodologies does Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks use in the book?

  • Interdisciplinary Approach: The book employs an interdisciplinary approach, drawing on insights from history, anthropology, and other fields to provide a comprehensive view.
  • Primary Sources: Wiesner-Hanks uses a wide range of primary sources, including printed materials, manuscripts, and visual art, to support her analysis.
  • Historiographical Debates: The narrative engages with historiographical debates, presenting different interpretations and encouraging critical thinking.
  • Comparative Analysis: The book includes comparative analysis, examining similarities and differences across regions and time periods to highlight broader trends.

Review Summary

3.97 out of 5
Average of 100+ ratings from Goodreads and Amazon.

Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789 receives mostly positive reviews for its comprehensive coverage of the period, including social, cultural, and economic aspects. Readers appreciate its readability, inclusion of women's perspectives, and focus on often overlooked groups. Some criticize the emphasis on social history at the expense of political events. The book is praised for its engaging writing style and thorough research, though a few find it dry. Overall, it's considered a valuable resource for understanding early modern Europe, particularly for students and general readers interested in the era.

Your rating:

About the Author

Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks is a distinguished historian specializing in early modern European history. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison and has taught at Augustana College and the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, where she is currently a Distinguished Professor. Wiesner-Hanks has authored or edited over twenty books, including works on gender history and world history. She co-edits the Sixteenth Century Journal and has served as Chief Reader for Advanced Placement World History. Her research focuses on women's history, gender studies, and the broader social and cultural aspects of early modern Europe.

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