Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789

1. Europe's "Early Modern" Era: A Shifting Concept

As concepts, “modernity” and “modernization” are teleological and totalizing, implying that history developed on a single linear trajectory with a final act.

Challenging the Narrative. The term "early modern" is not a clear-cut historical period but a construct, a way of dividing history that emerged from a specific European perspective. It implies a linear progression towards "modernity," a concept that is itself problematic and Eurocentric. This periodization, often marked by the Renaissance, Reformation, and voyages of discovery, is not universally applicable and overlooks the complexities and continuities of history.

Beyond Simple Divisions. The traditional division of history into ancient, medieval, and modern is increasingly seen as inadequate. The voyages of Columbus, for example, were driven by religious zeal as much as a "modern" desire for exploration. Similarly, the Protestant Reformation was a reform movement, not a complete break from the past. The idea of a single path to modernity is being questioned, with scholars recognizing multiple trajectories and diverse experiences.

Rethinking "Europe". The very definition of "Europe" is also a cultural construct, not a simple geographical fact. The idea of Europe as a distinct entity emerged in the early modern period, often in opposition to the "East." Its boundaries are fluid and contested, and its history is intertwined with that of other regions. The term "Europe" is a way of creating a boundary between "us" and "them," and it is important to recognize the subjectivity of this concept.

2. Global Connections: Trade, Travel, and Transformation

In the first half of the sixteenth century, other humanists began to use the terms “Europe” and “Europeans” more regularly, and map-makers began to print maps of Europe as a separate continent.

Beyond Localism. While most Europeans lived relatively isolated lives, a network of trade, travel, and exploration connected them to the wider world. Merchants like Marco Polo, though his tales were exaggerated, inspired others to seek new routes and opportunities. The Medieval Warm Period facilitated travel and trade, but the subsequent Little Ice Age brought challenges.

Motives for Travel. Economic gain was a major driver of exploration, with merchants seeking new sources of goods and markets. Religious motives also played a role, with pilgrimages to holy sites and missionary efforts to spread Christianity. These motives often intertwined, with merchants writing "in the name of God and profit." The Crusades, though religiously motivated, also had significant economic and political consequences.

Expanding Horizons. Portuguese voyages down the African coast led to the discovery of Atlantic islands and the establishment of trade with the Mali Empire. These voyages, along with the development of new navigational technologies, laid the groundwork for future European expansion. However, the widening of geographic horizons was not a one-way process, as the Little Ice Age and the decline of the Mongol Empire disrupted existing trade routes and connections.

3. Social Hierarchies: Orders, Gender, and Identity

Social, economic, gender, and ethnic hierarchies thus intersected in complex ways in society as a whole in the fifteenth century, and their impact on any single individual was similarly complex.

Beyond the Tripartite Model. The traditional division of society into those who fight (nobles), those who pray (clergy), and those who work (peasants) was an oversimplification. Society was far more complex, with significant variations within each group. Urban dwellers, Jews, and Muslims were largely excluded from this model.

Overlapping Hierarchies. Social rank, or "estate," was based on birth, function, and sometimes wealth. Status was also tied to concepts of honor, with certain occupations and activities considered more honorable than others. Gender created another hierarchy, with men generally considered superior to women, though this was not always absolute.

Fluid Identities. Concepts of kinship, culture, and geographic location also shaped identity. Terms like "tribe," "people," "race," and "nation" were used to describe these groups, often with a focus on blood and ancestry. Religious beliefs also became markers of identity, with people seen as having "Jewish blood," "Muslim blood," or "Christian blood." Skin color also began to be used as a marker of difference, with Europeans increasingly defining themselves as "white."

4. Political Landscape: Fragmented Power, Local Control

Throughout all of Europe, then, the mid-fifteenth century was a period in which political boundaries were shifting, as was the importance of different types of boundaries.

Shifting Boundaries. The political map of Europe in 1450 was characterized by shifting boundaries and fragmented power. The Hundred Years' War between England and France was coming to an end, but regional loyalties remained strong. Germany and Italy were divided into hundreds of different political units, with overlapping jurisdictions.

Local Autonomy. While territorial rulers held power, local institutions also played a significant role. Villages developed communes with institutions of self-governance, regulating local affairs. Towns and cities had charters that established administrative and supervisory offices, with considerable autonomy from higher authorities.

Ottoman Expansion. The Ottoman Empire was a major political force in the mid-fifteenth century, controlling much of Greece and the Balkans. The Ottomans developed centralized imperial institutions, but also co-opted existing local and religious authorities. The empire's diverse population included Muslims, Christians, and Jews, with varying degrees of autonomy.

5. Cultural and Intellectual Life: Religion, Humanism, and Vernacular

By the middle of the fifteenth century, humanist schools had opened in French and German as well as Italian cities, and gradually humanist education became the basis for intermediate and advanced education for a large share of the male middle-and upper-class population.

Religious Foundations. Cultural and intellectual life was still closely linked to religion. Monasteries, convents, and cathedral schools were the main avenues to literacy. Universities, which grew out of these schools, taught law, medicine, theology, and philosophy in Latin.

Humanist Innovation. Humanism, which emerged in Italian cities, emphasized classical literature and history. Humanists viewed education in the classics as the best preparation for a career in business or politics. They promoted a life active in the world and a focus on the public good.

Vernacular Literatures. Alongside Latin, vernacular languages began to be used for literature and official records. This led to the development of literary languages like Italian, French, and English, and broadened the circle of literate individuals. However, it also created new boundaries between those who spoke different languages.

6. Religious Practices: Rituals, Institutions, and Diversity

By the fifteenth century, every major life transition was marked by religious rituals for Christians.

Hierarchical Structures. The Christian church in western Europe was a hierarchy headed by the pope, with bishops, priests, monks, and nuns. The Orthodox Church in eastern Europe had a different structure, with a patriarch in Constantinople and local churches with considerable autonomy.

Rituals and Beliefs. Religious life was marked by rituals and practices, including processions, pilgrimages, prayers to saints, and confession. Life transitions like birth, marriage, and death were marked by religious ceremonies. The calendar was also set according to religious periods and days.

Religious Diversity. Alongside Christianity, there were also Jewish and Muslim communities in Europe. Each religion had its own rituals, practices, and institutions. Jewish religious life centered on schools, rabbinical courts, and temples, while Muslim religious life was marked by prayer at mosques and study at Qur'anic schools.

7. Economic Shifts: Capitalism, Guilds, and Environment

Making cloth was one of the first types of production in Europe to be organized along capitalist lines, in which the raw materials, finished product, and sometimes the tools needed for production were owned by someone other than the person doing the actual work.

Emerging Capitalism. Capitalism began to emerge in the fifteenth century, particularly in the cloth industry. Merchants and bankers invested in production, hiring wage workers and controlling the means of production. Mining was also a capitalist enterprise, with investors funding deeper tunnels and more complex processes.

Guild Regulations. Craft guilds organized the production and sale of many goods, regulating hours, wages, and quality standards. Guilds were led by master craftsmen and often prohibited non-members from trading in the town.

Environmental Impact. Economic activities had a significant environmental impact. Mining polluted rivers and deforested hillsides. The expansion of agriculture led to changes in land use. These environmental changes were often overlooked in the pursuit of economic growth.

8. The Interplay of Change and Continuity

Although we recognize that 1450 marks the beginning of much greater European interaction with the rest of the world, it is doubtful whether many people living in that year would have noticed this trend.

Gradual Transformation. The mid-fifteenth century was a period of both change and continuity. While new ideas and technologies were emerging, many aspects of life remained the same. Most people continued to live in rural villages, working the land and following traditional practices.

Unseen Shifts. Many of the changes that would later define the early modern period were not immediately apparent to people living in 1450. The impact of the printing press, the voyages of discovery, and the rise of capitalism would take time to unfold.

Complex Interactions. The various aspects of life – social, political, cultural, religious, and economic – were interconnected and influenced each other. Changes in one area often had ripple effects in others. The early modern period was a time of complex interactions and transformations, not a simple linear progression.

Last updated: January 27, 2025