Ethics and Infinity

1. Ethics as First Philosophy: Justice Before Being

For the first question, that by which being is torn and the human established as "otherwise than being" and transcendence in the world, that without which, in return, any other interrogation of thought is no more than vanity and chasing the wind—is the question of justice.

Ethics precedes metaphysics. Levinas argues that ethics is not a branch of philosophy but its very foundation. The question of how we relate to others, the demand for justice, is more fundamental than questions about being or existence. This reverses the traditional philosophical priority of ontology (the study of being) over ethics.

"Otherwise than being." This phrase encapsulates Levinas's central idea: that the ethical relationship transcends the categories of being. It is not simply a matter of how beings interact within the world, but of a responsibility that comes before any consideration of being. This responsibility is the defining characteristic of what it means to be human.

Justice as the core. For Levinas, justice is not a secondary concern that arises after we have established a system of knowledge or a theory of being. It is the primary question, the one that gives meaning to all other inquiries. Without a commitment to justice, philosophy becomes a futile exercise.

2. The Primacy of the Book: Scripture as Foundation

Indeed, to read is to keep oneself above the realism—or the politics—of our care for ourselves, without coming however to the good intentions of beautiful souls, or to the normative idealism of what "must be."

Books as ontological anchors. Levinas emphasizes the importance of books, particularly scripture, as foundational to human experience. Reading is not merely an intellectual exercise but a way of connecting with a deeper reality, a "true life which is absent" yet not utopian. The Bible, in particular, serves as a source of ethical plenitude.

Beyond information. The value of scripture lies not in its informational content but in its capacity to shape our understanding of the world and our place within it. The characters and narratives of the Bible offer a framework for ethical reflection and action.

Hermeneutic possibilities. The Bible's richness lies in its openness to interpretation. Each reading and commentary reveals new layers of meaning, allowing for a continuous engagement with the text and its ethical implications. This hermeneutic process is itself a form of religious life.

3. Husserl's Phenomenology: A Rigorous Return to Intentions

Phenomenology is the recall of these forgotten thoughts, of these intentions; full consciousness, return to the misunderstood implied intentions of thought in the world.

Philosophy as rigorous science. Levinas was drawn to Husserl's phenomenology as a method for conducting philosophical inquiry with rigor and precision. Phenomenology seeks to describe the structures of consciousness and experience as they appear to us, without imposing preconceived notions or metaphysical assumptions.

Intentionality of consciousness. A key concept in Husserl's phenomenology is intentionality: the idea that all consciousness is consciousness of something. Consciousness is always directed toward an object, whether real or imagined. This intentional structure shapes our experience of the world.

Recalling obscured intentions. Phenomenology involves a process of reflection, a return to the "forgotten thoughts" and "misunderstood implied intentions" that underlie our everyday experience. By clarifying these intentions, we can gain a deeper understanding of the meaning of our experience.

4. Heidegger's Ontology: Awakening the Verb "To Be"

With Heidegger, "verbality" was awakened in the word being, what is event in it, the "happening" of being.

Being as verb. Heidegger shifted the focus of philosophy from the study of beings (things that exist) to the study of Being itself. He emphasized the verbal nature of "being," highlighting its dynamic and active character. Being is not a static entity but a process, an event, a "happening."

Fundamental ontology. Heidegger defined philosophy as fundamental ontology, the exploration of the meaning of the verb "to be." This involves understanding the conditions that make beings possible and the ways in which Being reveals itself in the world.

Anxiety and nothingness. Heidegger's analysis of anxiety reveals the experience of nothingness as a fundamental aspect of human existence. Anxiety is not simply a psychological state but an ontological access to the void that underlies all being. This experience challenges traditional notions of being and existence.

5. The Horror of the "There Is": Impersonal Existence

For me, to the contrary, "there is" is the phenomenon of impersonal being: "it."

Impersonal being. Levinas introduces the concept of the "there is" (il y a) to describe a state of impersonal, anonymous existence. This is not the being of individual things but a kind of background noise, a rumbling silence that persists even in the absence of specific entities.

Horror and insomnia. The "there is" is associated with experiences of horror, panic, and insomnia. It is the feeling of being trapped in a state of wakefulness, unable to escape the relentless presence of existence. This impersonal being absorbs consciousness, depersonalizing the individual.

Escape through the Other. Levinas proposes that the way to escape the horror of the "there is" is through the social relationship with the Other. Responsibility for the Other, being-for-the-other, interrupts the anonymous rumbling of being and offers a path to deliverance.

6. Beyond Solitude: Time as Relationship with the Other

The aim of these lectures is to show that time is not the achievement of an isolated and lone subject. But that it is the subject's very relationship with the Other.

Solitude as a mark of being. Levinas challenges the existentialist notion of solitude as the defining condition of human existence. He argues that solitude is not a primary state but a consequence of being, an isolation that marks the very event of existence.

Knowledge as immanence. Knowledge, for Levinas, does not break the isolation of being. It is a process of assimilation, of making the other equal to the self. True sociality, therefore, must be found elsewhere, in a relationship that transcends knowledge.

Time and alterity. Time is not simply a subjective experience of duration but a dynamism that leads us beyond ourselves, toward the Other. It is a relationship with unattainable alterity, an interruption of rhythm and its returns. This relationship is exemplified in eros and filiation.

7. Eros and Filiation: Transcendence Through Alterity

In eros an alterity between things is exalted which does not reduce to the logical or numerical difference which formally distinguishes any individual from any other.

Erotic alterity. The erotic relationship is characterized by an exaltation of alterity, a recognition of the other as fundamentally different. This is not simply a matter of different attributes but of an ontological difference, a way of being that resists assimilation.

Femininity as mystery. Levinas describes the feminine as "of itself other," as the origin of the very concept of alterity. The feminine is associated with hiding, modesty, and a flight from light, a mode of being that is irreducible to knowledge or power.

Filiation beyond the possible. Filiation, the relationship between parent and child, is another example of transcendence through alterity. The child represents possibilities that are impossible for the parent, exceeding the limits of their being. This relationship challenges traditional notions of substance and subjectivity.

8. Totality vs. Infinity: The Ethical Rupture of Systems

The real must not only be determined in its historical objectivity, but also from interior intentions, from the secrecy that interrupts the continuity of historical time. Only starting from this secrecy is the pluralism of society possible.

Critique of totality. Levinas critiques the philosophical tradition of seeking to reduce all experience to a unified totality. He argues that this totalizing impulse is an affront to the irreducible alterity of the Other and a threat to individual freedom.

Non-synthesizables. Certain experiences, such as the relationship between human beings and the experience of death, are inherently non-synthesizable. They resist being incorporated into a totalizing system of knowledge.

Secrecy and freedom. A free society must be founded on a recognition of the essential secrecy of individual lives. This secrecy is not a matter of isolation but of responsibility for the Other, a responsibility that is inaccessible to any totalizing force.

9. The Face as Ethical Command: "Thou Shalt Not Kill"

The face is what one cannot kill, or at least it is that whose meaning consists in saying: "thou shalt not kill."

Beyond perception. The face is not simply an object of perception but an ethical command. It is a signification without context, a direct address that calls us to responsibility. The best way to encounter the Other is not even to notice the color of their eyes.

Destitution and uprightness. The face is both destitute and upright, exposed and defenseless. It invites violence but also forbids it. The face is the most naked part of the body, yet it maintains a decent nudity.

The ethical rupture. The appearance of the face in being is a rupture of being. It is a moment of ethical significance that challenges the ontological order. Even though murder is possible, the prohibition against killing remains a fundamental ethical exigency.

10. Responsibility for the Other: Subjectivity as Hostage

I understand responsibility as responsibility for the Other, thus as responsibility for what is not my deed, or for what does not even matter to me; or which precisely does matter to me, is met by me as face.

Responsibility before freedom. Levinas defines subjectivity in terms of responsibility for the Other. This responsibility is not a choice but a prior condition, a fundamental structure of being. We are responsible for the Other even before we have taken on any specific responsibilities.

Non-symmetrical relation. The relationship between the self and the Other is non-symmetrical. The self is responsible for the Other without waiting for reciprocity. This subjection to the Other is the essence of subjectivity.

Substitution and hostage. Subjectivity goes to the point of substitution for the Other, assuming the condition of hostage. The self answers to the point of expiating for others. This is the "otherwise than being," the undoing of the ontological condition in the human condition.

11. Testimony and Glory: The Infinite Enters Language

The subject, or the other in the Same, insofar as the Same is for the other, testifies to the Infinite, of which no theme, no present, is capable.

The face signifies the Infinite. The Infinite comes in the signifyingness of the face. The more we are just, the more we are responsible. We are never quits with regard to the Other. This is the manifestation of the Infinite.

Testimony, not knowledge. The relationship to the Infinite is not a knowledge but a desire. The subject who says "Here I am!" testifies to the Infinite. It is through this testimony that the glory of the Infinite glorifies.

Inspiration and the Spirit. The way in which the Other or the Infinite manifests itself in subjectivity is the very phenomenon of "inspiration." This defines the psychic element, the very pneumatic of the psychism, the Spirit.

12. Philosophy and Religion: Ethics as the Measure of Spirit

God has spoken, who would not prophecy?, where prophecy is thus posited as a fact of man's humanity.

Prophetism as a human condition. Levinas expands the concept of prophetism beyond the traditional notion of gifted individuals. He sees it as a fundamental aspect of the human condition, a way of testifying to the glory of the Infinite through responsibility for the Other.

Ethics before the Messiah. To be worthy of the messianic era, we must admit that ethics has a meaning, even without the coming of the Messiah. Ethics is not dependent on a future event but is a present exigency.

The ethical confluence. The Bible is the outcome of prophecies, the deposit of ethical testimony in the form of writings. The miracle of the Bible lies not in its common literary origin but in the confluence of different literatures toward the same essential content: the ethical.

Last updated: March 31, 2025