In Sorcery's Shadow

1. Initial Fieldwork Requires Learning to Listen

“Monsieur Paul, you will never learn about us if you go into people’s compounds, ask personal questions, and write down the answers.”

Survey methods fail. The author's initial attempt to understand Songhay language attitudes through a quantitative survey proved futile. Informants routinely lied, rendering the data worthless and highlighting the limitations of formal, detached research methods in this cultural context. This forced a re-evaluation of the anthropological approach.

Listening is key. Advised by an elder, the author shifted to a more traditional Songhay method of learning: sitting, listening, and observing in various discussion groups. This unstructured approach, though initially frustrating and slow, gradually revealed deeper insights into the community's social dynamics, history, and values, demonstrating that true understanding requires patience and presence.

Building trust slowly. Acceptance and genuine information were not immediate. People were wary of the outsider, refusing notes or recordings. Only after months of consistent, passive participation and a surprising incident where the author adopted a Songhay approach to discipline children did the villagers begin to open up, allowing for more direct engagement and the recording of sensitive information.

2. A Sign Leads to Apprenticeship Initiation

“Yes, I am a sorko and now that you have been pointed out to me, I want you to come to my compound tomorrow after the evening prayer so that we might begin to learn texts.”

An unexpected sign. A seemingly mundane event – birds defecating on the author's head – was interpreted by Djibo Mounmouni, a local sorko (magician/healer), as a significant sign. This led to an unexpected invitation for the author to become Djibo's apprentice, marking a pivotal shift from observer to participant in the world of Songhay magic.

Initiation ritual. The apprenticeship began with memorizing incantations and culminated in an initiation ceremony involving the consumption of a special paste called kusu. This ritual, performed with Djibo and his father, Mounmouni Koda, symbolized the transfer of power and status, physically manifesting as a distended belly and a feeling of fullness, signifying the apprentice's new state.

Entering a new world. The initiation was not just symbolic; it was presented as entry into a world of wonders and dangers. The kusu was said to remain in the belly forever, imbuing the apprentice with strength and marking them as someone on the sorko path, visible to other practitioners and spirits, and requiring constant vigilance and protection.

3. Songhay Magic Relies on Sound and Words

“The meaning of the words is secondary. Do you understand?”

Power in sound. The core of Songhay magic, particularly for sorko and sohanci, lies not just in the meaning of incantations but in their sound and the act of recitation. Specific words, often non-Songhay or archaic, are believed to carry inherent power, capable of repelling evil, transforming substances, or invoking spirits.

Incantations as force. Reciting these texts, sometimes accompanied by spitting into substances or objects, is understood as infusing them with the force of the heavens or ancestors. This ritual act transfers power from the unseen world into the physical realm, making powders protective, objects potent, or individuals capable of extraordinary feats.

Learning through memorization. The primary method of teaching magic is rigorous memorization of these texts, often without immediate explanation of their meaning. This emphasizes that the power is in the correct performance and sound of the words, passed down through generations, rather than intellectual comprehension alone.

4. The Path of Sorcery is Fraught with Danger

“A man on the path must be hard; he must be prepared.”

Constant threat. The world of Songhay sorcery is depicted as a world of eternal war, where practitioners are both hunters and hunted. Enemies, witches, evil spirits, and even other sorcerers pose continuous threats, requiring constant vigilance and readiness for attack.

Physical and psychological attacks. Dangers manifest in various forms, from physical ailments like paralysis (experienced by the author) to psychological attacks like fear-inducing noises (heard in Ayoru). These are attributed to the malevolent actions of others using magical means, highlighting the very real perceived consequences of engaging in this world.

Preparation is key. Survival on the path demands "hardness" – a combination of resilience, preparedness, and the use of protective magic. This includes carrying charms, knowing counter-incantations, and being wary of others, even seemingly friendly acquaintances, as betrayal is a constant possibility.

5. Different Magicians Possess Unique Powers

“We, too, am a horso. Men like me are masters of the word, possessors of power. But our power and our words are different from those of the sohanci and sorko.”

Specialized knowledge. The Songhay magical world is not monolithic; different types of practitioners possess distinct knowledge and abilities. The book introduces several:

• Sorko: Often associated with healing, protection, and control over certain spirits (like Dongo).
• Sohanci: Descendants of the Magic King, Sonni Ali Ber, known for powerful magic, including transformation and control over specific spirits.
• Horso: Masters of the word with unique powers, such as making villages invisible or individuals irresistible.
• Diviners: Like Fatouma, who read cowry shells to see the past, present, and future.

Inherited and learned power. Magical ability can be inherited (like the Sohanci lineage or the guunu's power from witch mothers) or learned through apprenticeship and rigorous study. Masters pass down secrets, often only on their deathbeds, emphasizing the value and controlled transmission of this knowledge.

Complementary roles. Despite differences, these paths sometimes intersect or complement each other. Practitioners may consult one another, and rituals may involve collaboration between different types of magicians, indicating a complex system of specialized knowledge within the broader magical landscape.

6. Spirits Influence the World and Can Be Sent

“Only the spirits of the cold roar in the night, and that nasty woman has control of many spirits of the cold.”

Active unseen world. The Songhay cosmos is populated by a vast pantheon of spirits (Tooru, genji kwarey, Doguwa, etc.) who actively influence the human world. These spirits control natural forces, cause illness, offer guidance, and can be invoked or directed by skilled practitioners.

Spirits causing harm. Malevolent spirits, often associated with cold or specific diseases, can be sent by sorcerers or witches to attack individuals, causing physical harm, psychological distress, or misfortune. The author's experience in Ayoru, hearing roars and feeling a presence, is attributed to such a spirit attack.

Appeasing and controlling spirits. Magicians interact with spirits through praise-songs, offerings, and specific rituals. Initiations often involve gaining the favor or protection of powerful spirits, and healing rites may focus on repelling or appeasing spirits causing illness.

7. Ethical Lines Blur in Deep Immersion

Was it out of my scholar’s urge to learn more about the Songhay world of sorcery, or was I slowly being led into a world in which morality did not exist?

Observer vs. participant. The author grapples with the fundamental anthropological dilemma of maintaining objectivity while deeply immersing in a foreign culture. Becoming an apprentice and participating in magical acts challenges the traditional role of the detached observer.

Involvement in harmful acts. The "mean chief" incident, where a ritual is performed to cause misfortune to someone, forces the author to confront the ethical implications of his participation. He becomes an accessory to an act intended to harm, raising questions about his own morality and the boundaries of ethnographic engagement.

Reciprocity and obligation. The relationships with teachers like Adamu Jenitongo and Amadu Zima involve deep personal connection and reciprocal obligations. Accepting gifts of power and knowledge creates a moral bind, making it difficult to refuse requests or maintain critical distance, further complicating the ethical landscape of the fieldwork.

8. Patience and Hardness Shape the Apprentice

“It takes all of us a long time to learn,” Mounmouni Koda said. “I am still learning and I am at the end of my path.”

Learning requires time. Songhay elders emphasize that true knowledge, especially of magic, is acquired slowly, over decades, requiring immense patience. The mind must be ready, and rushing the process is seen as foolish and potentially dangerous.

Hardness as resilience. The concept of "hardness" is central to the sorcerer's path. It signifies resilience, strength of will, and the ability to withstand hardship, danger, and betrayal. Experiences like the kusu initiation and surviving magical attacks are tests that build this essential quality.

Transformation through experience. The apprenticeship is a process of personal transformation. The author's initial skepticism and fear gradually give way to a grudging acceptance of the reality of Songhay magic and his own changing nature, becoming, in the eyes of his teachers, "mean and hard."

9. Divination Reveals Paths and Hidden Enemies

“There is a nasty woman in Ayoru who dislikes me and because she dislikes me, she dislikes you.”

Cowries as tools. Divination, particularly using cowry shells, is a key practice for understanding the unseen forces influencing life. Practitioners like Adamu Jenitongo and Fatouma interpret the patterns of thrown shells to reveal aspects of a person's past, present, and future.

Identifying enemies. Divination frequently highlights the presence of enemies, often unseen, who are actively working against the individual through jealousy, sorcery, or other malicious means. This reinforces the Songhay worldview where misfortune is often attributed to the ill will of others.

Guidance and warnings. The readings provide guidance on how to navigate life's challenges, warnings about impending dangers, and instructions on rituals or actions needed for protection or success. The shells are seen as communicating messages from the spirit world or ancestors, offering a roadmap for the individual's path.

10. The Journey of Learning is Lifelong

“When a man on the path reaches the fork in the road, he must make his choice of direction and continue forward.”

Continuous learning. The apprenticeship is not a finite process with a clear endpoint. Masters like Adamu Jenitongo and Amadu Zima emphasize that they are still learning, even in old age. The path of knowledge is long and requires continuous effort and openness to new experiences.

Unresolved questions. Despite years of study and profound experiences, the author is left with many unanswered questions about the deeper meanings and mechanisms of Songhay magic. Teachers often provide knowledge through experience or cryptic proverbs rather than direct explanations, reflecting a different epistemology.

The path continues. The book ends with the author's journey ongoing, marked by the gifts and knowledge received from his teachers. He carries the physical tokens of his apprenticeship (rings, powders, stones) and the internal changes wrought by his experiences, suggesting that the transformation and the learning process will continue long after leaving Niger.

Last updated: June 9, 2025