Metaphors We Live By

1. Metaphors shape our conceptual system and everyday language

Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action.

Pervasive influence. Metaphors are not merely poetic devices but fundamental elements of our conceptual system. They shape how we think, speak, and act in our daily lives. For example, we often conceptualize arguments as war, leading to expressions like "defending a position" or "attacking weak points."

Systematic nature. Metaphorical concepts form coherent systems that structure our understanding of complex ideas. The metaphor "Time is Money" gives rise to related expressions like:

• "spending time"
• "investing in the future"
• "budgeting hours"

This systematic nature allows us to reason about abstract concepts (like time) using more concrete domains (like money).

2. Our understanding of abstract concepts is rooted in physical experience

We typically conceptualize the nonphysical in terms of the physical—that is, we conceptualize the less clearly delineated in terms of the more clearly delineated.

Embodied cognition. Our physical experiences in the world form the basis for understanding more abstract concepts. This grounding in physical reality allows us to make sense of complex ideas through more tangible experiences.

Examples of physical-to-abstract mappings:

• Up/Down → More/Less ("prices are rising")
• Container → States/Categories ("in love," "out of trouble")
• Journey → Life/Career ("at a crossroads")

Experiential basis. These mappings are not arbitrary but arise from correlations in our everyday experiences. For instance, the association of "up" with "more" likely stems from the physical experience of adding objects to a pile and seeing it grow taller.

3. Metaphors are not just linguistic, but conceptual and shape our thoughts

The most important claim we have made so far is that metaphor is not just a matter of language, that is, of mere words. We shall argue that, on the contrary, human thought processes are largely metaphorical.

Cognitive foundation. Metaphors are not simply figures of speech but fundamental cognitive mechanisms. They structure how we perceive, think about, and interact with the world around us.

Inference patterns. Metaphors allow us to use reasoning patterns from one domain to understand another. For example, the "Love is a Journey" metaphor enables us to think about relationships in terms of:

• Travelers (lovers)
• Destinations (relationship goals)
• Obstacles (relationship problems)
• Different paths (choices in the relationship)

This conceptual mapping influences how we reason about love and relationships, affecting our expectations, decisions, and actions.

4. Cultural values and assumptions are reflected in metaphorical concepts

What all of this shows is that truth depends on categorization in the following four ways: [...] Categories are neither fixed nor uniform. They are defined by prototypes and family resemblances to prototypes and are adjustable in context, given various purposes.

Cultural lens. The metaphors prevalent in a culture reflect and reinforce its values and assumptions. Different cultures may conceptualize the same concepts using different metaphorical frameworks.

Flexible categorization. Our categories are not rigid but are based on prototypes and can be adjusted based on context and purpose. This flexibility allows for cultural variation in metaphorical concepts.

Examples of cultural differences in metaphors:

• Time: Linear (Western) vs. Cyclical (some Eastern cultures)
• Self: Independent (Individualistic cultures) vs. Interdependent (Collectivist cultures)
• Nature: Resource to be used vs. Entity to be in harmony with

5. New metaphors can create new realities and understandings

New metaphors have the power to create a new reality. This can begin to happen when we start to comprehend our experience in terms of a metaphor, and it becomes a deeper reality when we begin to act in terms of it.

Transformative power. Novel metaphors can reshape our understanding of concepts and experiences, leading to new perspectives and behaviors. They can highlight aspects of reality previously unnoticed or underappreciated.

Practical implications. New metaphors can influence:

• Personal growth (e.g., viewing life as a "journey" vs. a "battle")
• Scientific understanding (e.g., the "selfish gene" metaphor in biology)
• Social change (e.g., "global village" metaphor for interconnected world)

By offering new ways to conceptualize issues, metaphors can drive innovation and problem-solving in various domains.

6. Objectivism and subjectivism are inadequate; experientialism offers a better approach

We reject the objectivist view that there is absolute and unconditional truth without adopting the subjectivist alternative of truth as obtainable only through the imagination, unconstrained by external circumstances.

Beyond traditional dichotomies. The authors propose experientialism as an alternative to the limitations of both objectivism (which ignores human understanding) and subjectivism (which disregards external reality).

Key aspects of experientialism:

• Acknowledges the role of human embodiment and experience in shaping understanding
• Recognizes the constraints imposed by physical and cultural environments
• Allows for meaningful truth claims without requiring absolute, universal truth
• Emphasizes the importance of metaphor in human cognition and reasoning

This approach offers a more nuanced and comprehensive framework for understanding human thought and experience.

7. Understanding involves constant negotiation of meaning

When it really counts, meaning is almost never communicated according to the CONDUIT metaphor, that is, where one person transmits a fixed, clear proposition to another by means of expressions in a common language, where both parties have all the relevant common knowledge, assumptions, values, etc.

Dynamic process. Understanding is not a simple transfer of information but a complex, interactive process involving negotiation between individuals with different backgrounds and perspectives.

Elements of meaning negotiation:

• Awareness of differing assumptions and experiences
• Flexibility in adjusting one's worldview
• Patience and tolerance for misunderstandings
• Creative use of metaphor to bridge gaps in understanding

This view challenges simplistic models of communication and highlights the importance of active engagement in creating shared meaning.

8. Ritual, aesthetics, and politics are deeply influenced by metaphorical thinking

Cultural metaphors, and the values entailed by them, are propagated by ritual.

Pervasive influence. Metaphorical thinking extends beyond language, shaping various aspects of human culture and society.

Areas impacted by metaphorical concepts:

• Rituals: Embody and reinforce cultural metaphors
• Aesthetics: Art as creation of new experiential gestalts
• Politics: Framing of issues and policies through metaphors

Understanding the metaphorical basis of these domains can provide deeper insights into cultural practices, artistic expression, and political discourse.

9. Metaphorical thought is central to self-understanding and interpersonal communication

Self-understanding requires unending negotiation and renegotiation of the meaning of your experiences to yourself.

Ongoing process. Self-understanding is not a static achievement but a continuous process of interpreting and reinterpreting our experiences through metaphorical frameworks.

Key aspects of metaphorical self-understanding:

• Searching for personal metaphors that make sense of our lives
• Developing awareness of the metaphors we live by
• Engaging with alternative metaphors to gain new perspectives
• Constant revision of our life stories

This approach to self-understanding emphasizes the active, creative role we play in constructing our identities and making sense of our experiences.

Last updated: September 22, 2024