Reason and Religious Belief

1. Philosophy of Religion Examines the Intellectual Dimension of Faith

To seek to know whether given beliefs are meaningful, consistent, and reasonable is to engage in a distinctively philosophical activity.

Beliefs at the Core. Religion, a pervasive force in human life, is constituted by beliefs, actions, and emotions organized around the concept of an Ultimate Reality. Philosophy of religion critically analyzes these beliefs for consistency, coherence, plausibility, and truth, providing a framework for understanding the intellectual dimension of faith.

Diverse Approaches. The study of religion spans various disciplines, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, history, and comparative religion. However, philosophy uniquely examines the reasonableness and truth of religious beliefs, scrutinizing concepts and arguments to arrive at the most rational position.

Analytic Style. The philosophical task involves seeking clarity, being critical, basing opinions on argument, and constructing comprehensive viewpoints. Philosophy of religion employs these methods to analyze religious beliefs, drawing insights from epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics to evaluate their meaning and validity.

2. Religious Experience: Diverse Encounters with the Divine

Evidence is abundant that human beings are incurably religious.

Varied Experiences. Religious experiences, encounters with the supernatural or Ultimate Reality, take many forms, from mediated sensory experiences to direct, intuitive awareness. Richard Swinburne classifies these experiences into five types, based on how they come about, highlighting the diversity of religious encounters.

Interpretations of Experience. Religious experience can be understood as a feeling, a perceptual experience, or a supernatural explanation. Schleiermacher viewed it as a feeling of absolute dependence, while Alston sees it as a form of perception. Proudfoot argues that it is an experience interpreted as religious by the experiencer.

Common Core Debate. The question of whether there is a common core to religious experiences is debated. Some, like Stace, argue for a universal core transcending religious boundaries, while others, like Katz, contend that all experience is mediated by concepts and beliefs, shaping religious experience differently across traditions.

3. Faith and Reason: Navigating the Spectrum of Belief

The real question, then, is not whether reason has any place in religion . . . but what kind of place reason does and should have.

The Interplay of Faith and Reason. The relationship between faith and reason is complex, with some advocating for their complete separation while others emphasize their compatibility. The key question is the role of reason in validating or invalidating religious belief-systems.

Strong Rationalism vs. Fideism. Strong rationalism demands proof for religious beliefs, while fideism rejects rational evaluation altogether. Clifford argues that it is wrong to believe anything on insufficient evidence, while Kierkegaard emphasizes the necessity of a "leap of faith."

Critical Rationalism. Critical rationalism offers a middle ground, asserting that religious belief-systems can and must be rationally criticized and evaluated, although conclusive proof is impossible. This approach seeks a balance between neutrality and bias, aiming for interested objectivity in assessing religious claims.

4. The Divine Attributes: Defining the God of Classical Theism

We believe that thou art a being than which nothing greater can be conceived.

Theism's God. Classical theism conceives of God as a spiritual being, transcendent from the world, who is omnipotent, omniscient, and perfectly good. This view, shared by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, has been the chief interest of Western philosophers of religion.

Perfect Being Theology. Anselm's definition of God as "a being than which nothing greater can be conceived" lays the foundation for understanding the divine attributes. This concept implies that God is worthy of worship and possesses all possible perfection and excellence.

Attributes and Challenges. God is understood as necessary, self-existent, personal, creator, and sustainer. However, challenges arise in defining attributes like omnipotence, omniscience, and perfect goodness, as well as reconciling them with human freedom and the existence of evil.

5. Theistic Arguments: Rational Support for God's Existence

In any given case, if we found a network of actions, emotions, and beliefs focusing on some Ultimate Reality, then our general definition would be satisfied to a sufficient degree and we would be justified in saying that we have an instance of religion.

Theistic Arguments as Proofs. Theistic arguments, often called proofs, aim to provide rational support for the existence of God. While strong rationalism demands universally convincing proofs, a person-relative view acknowledges that proofs can be persuasive to some individuals based on their existing knowledge and beliefs.

Key Arguments. The ontological argument, developed by Anselm, argues for God's existence based on the concept of a perfect being. The kalam cosmological argument posits a first cause for the universe, while the Thomistic version seeks a sustaining cause. The teleological argument points to the apparent design and purpose in the universe as evidence of a divine creator.

Moral Argument. The moral argument suggests that the existence of an objective moral law implies a moral lawgiver, often identified as God. These arguments, while not universally convincing, can contribute to a cumulative case for theism, providing rational support for belief in God.

6. The Problem of Evil: A Challenge to Theistic Belief

The essential strategy of this introductory text is to distill and discuss the main issues in the field, extracting the intellectual dialogue with which the more complex and difficult primary literature is occupied.

The Existence of Evil. The problem of evil, widely recognized as the most serious rational objection to belief in God, challenges the compatibility of an omnipotent, omniscient, and perfectly good God with the existence of evil in the world. Evil can be categorized as moral evil (wrongful acts of free beings) and natural evil (suffering from impersonal forces).

Logical vs. Evidential. The logical problem of evil alleges an inconsistency between theistic claims about God and the existence of evil. The evidential problem argues that theism is implausible given the amount and types of evil in the world, particularly pointless or gratuitous evil.

Theodicies and Defenses. Theists have responded with defenses, aiming to show the consistency of theism with evil, and theodicies, seeking to provide a reasonable explanation for why God allows evil. Plantinga's Free Will Defense argues that God cannot create free creatures who only do good, while others offer explanations based on natural law, punishment, or ultimate harmony.

7. Knowing God Without Arguments: Reformed Epistemology

The present study is basically analytic in its style, seeking to clarify and analyze important concepts and arguments.

Reformed Epistemology. Reformed epistemology challenges the evidentialist view that belief in God must be based on rational argument. It argues that belief in God can be "basic" in the framework of our beliefs, justified without external evidence.

Critique of Evidentialism. Evidentialism, which requires evidence for religious beliefs, is criticized for its reliance on strong foundationalism and its inability to account for the rationality of religious belief. Reformed epistemologists argue that religious beliefs can be properly basic, similar to perceptual or memory beliefs.

Properly Basic Beliefs. Plantinga suggests that belief in God can be properly basic under certain conditions, such as experiencing God's presence or recognizing his wisdom in creation. This view emphasizes the role of religious experience in justifying religious beliefs, challenging the need for traditional theistic arguments.

8. Religious Language: Bridging the Gap Between Human Words and the Divine

The examination of the intellectual dimension of religion —that is, its key beliefs —is most beneficial when it is guided and informed.

The Challenge of Religious Language. Religious language, drawn from ordinary discourse, faces the challenge of meaningfully applying to God, who is transcendent and unlike anything else we know. Philosophers seek to understand how human words can speak of the infinite.

The Theory of Analogy. Thomas Aquinas proposed the theory of analogy, arguing that words applied to God are neither univocal (same meaning) nor equivocal (completely different meaning) but analogical. This theory seeks to explain how meaning is transferred from ordinary contexts to religious ones.

Meaning and Verification. Logical positivists challenged the meaningfulness of religious language, arguing that it is not empirically verifiable. While this view has waned, it raises fundamental questions about the cognitive status of theological statements and the relationship between language and reality.

9. Miracles: Examining Divine Intervention in the Natural World

The essential strategy of this introductory text is to distill and discuss the main issues in the field, extracting the intellectual dialogue with which the more complex and difficult primary literature is occupied.

Defining Miracles. Miracles are often defined as direct acts of God that violate natural laws. However, some argue that miracles can also be events with natural explanations that occur at opportune moments, reflecting divine intervention.

Miracles as Historical Events. The possibility of miracles raises questions about historical evidence and the reliability of testimony. Hume argued that the evidence for natural laws is always stronger than the evidence for alleged violations, while others contend that specific circumstances can justify belief in miraculous events.

Miracles as Acts of God. The key question is whether we can justifiably claim that God has directly intervened in earthly affairs. Some argue that certain events are so extraordinary that divine intervention is the most plausible explanation, while others emphasize the importance of considering the broader context and the compatibility of such claims with theistic beliefs.

10. Life After Death: Exploring the Possibility of Continued Existence

The task that lies before us is an important one: to think philosophically about particular issues in religion, specifically, the issues related to the theistic concept of God.

Concepts of Life After Death. Belief in life after death is central to many religions, with diverse concepts ranging from immortality of the soul to reincarnation and resurrection. The possibility of personal life after death depends on the nature of human persons and the existence of a powerful mediating agent.

Personal Identity and the Soul. One view identifies personal identity with a nonphysical soul, capable of surviving physical death. However, this raises questions about the soul's ability to sustain cognitive functions without a brain and the nature of existence in the afterlife.

Psychophysical Unity. Another view sees human persons as psychophysical unities, with mental states identical to brain processes. This perspective allows for the possibility of re-creation by a powerful God, who could re-create our physical and psychical characteristics, raising questions about spatiotemporal continuity and personal identity.

11. Religion and Science: Seeking Harmony or Acknowledging Conflict

Thoughtful and informed people are already aware of many of these issues which arise when they reflect on the events and experiences of ordinary life.

The Relationship Between Religion and Science. The relationship between religion and science has been marked by conflict, compartmentalization, and complementarity. Understanding the objects, aims, and methods of each discipline is crucial for navigating this complex relationship.

Conflict and Compartmentalization. Conflict arises when religion and science are seen as competing explanations for the same phenomena, as in the creation-evolution debate. Compartmentalization, on the other hand, treats religion and science as separate spheres with distinct objects, methods, and aims.

Complementarity. Complementarity seeks a middle ground, viewing science and theology as offering different kinds of explanations about the same objects. This approach emphasizes the importance of both scientific and theological perspectives for a fuller understanding of reality.

12. Religious Pluralism: Understanding and Evaluating Religious Diversity

Attaining an adequate degree of understanding is a prelude to forming a reasonable opinion and having some sense of how to pursue these and other philosophical issues in religion.

The Challenge of Religious Diversity. Religious diversity presents the challenge of understanding and evaluating the truth-claims of different religions. Exclusivism asserts that salvation is found only in one particular religion, while pluralism holds that different religions can successfully facilitate salvation.

Exclusivism, Pluralism, and Inclusivism. Exclusivism claims that salvation is found solely in one religion, while pluralism holds that different religions can successfully facilitate salvation. Inclusivism asserts the absolute truth of one religion while allowing that adherents of other religions can be saved because of things specified by the true religion.

Criteria for Assessing Religions. Evaluating religious systems requires considering their internal consistency, compatibility with knowledge, ability to account for human experience, and moral and aesthetic intuitions. The challenge lies in applying these criteria to diverse systems and determining the relative truth of their claims.

Last updated: February 28, 2025