Small Things Considered

1. Design is a Ubiquitous Human Endeavor

Because so much of what we do involves design of one kind or another, we know instinctively what design entails.

Design's Pervasiveness. Design is not limited to professional designers; it permeates everyday life. From arranging furniture to planning an evening, humans are constantly making choices to shape their environment and experiences. This inherent understanding of design principles makes everyone a critic, capable of appreciating or critiquing the objects and systems around them.

Examples of Everyday Design:

• Arranging chairs before a television
• Selecting a television program
• Choosing clothes to wear
• Deciding on the brands of beer in the refrigerator

Thinking and Design. The act of thinking inherently involves design. Humans instinctively understand the constraints, choices, and compromises involved in design because they engage in it constantly. This understanding allows for informed criticism and appreciation of both successful and flawed designs.

2. Constraints are the Defining Features of Design

Some engineers even define the creative aspect of engineering as “design under constraint,” to emphasize that what engineers do is always tied to the reality of the world and of the budget.

Design's Boundaries. Design is always bound by limitations, whether imposed by budget, client demands, physical laws, or available materials. These constraints, far from stifling creativity, are the very foundation upon which innovative solutions are built. The creative process thrives within these boundaries, forcing designers to think strategically and resourcefully.

Types of Constraints:

• Budgetary limitations
• Physical laws (e.g., gravity)
• Material properties
• Client requirements
• Regulatory standards

Constraints as Opportunities. Constraints are not merely obstacles but defining features of a design problem. They shape the solution and become dissolved and absorbed into the final product. Recognizing and understanding these limitations is the first step toward effective design.

3. Choice and Cost are Inextricably Linked in Design

All design involves choice, and the choices often have to be made to satisfy competing constraints.

Design's Crossroads. Every design decision involves a choice, and these choices inevitably carry costs, both monetary and non-monetary. These costs can include direct expenses for materials and labor, as well as indirect costs related to aesthetics, convenience, environmental impact, and social considerations.

Examples of Cost Considerations:

• Monetary cost of materials and labor
• Aesthetic costs (e.g., visual appeal to neighbors)
• Environmental costs (e.g., sustainability of materials)
• Social costs (e.g., impact on neighborly relations)

Balancing Act. Designers must constantly weigh the costs and benefits of different choices, seeking to maximize value while staying within budget and satisfying various constraints. This balancing act is at the heart of the design process.

4. Compromise is Inevitable in Design

It is the rare case in which no compromise at all has to be made in form or function, and it is the nature of the compromises arising from the choices among the constraints that makes a design less than perfect.

Design's Reality. Because every design must satisfy competing objectives, compromise is an unavoidable aspect of the process. Balancing aesthetics, functionality, user-friendliness, and cost often requires trade-offs, resulting in solutions that are "good enough" rather than absolutely perfect.

Examples of Design Compromises:

• A strikingly handsome chair that is uncomfortable to sit in
• A sturdy bridge that blights a highway's natural beauty
• A user interface that is useful but ugly

Satisficing. The concept of "satisficing," finding solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient rather than optimal, is central to design. Designers must make decisions that are "good enough" for the complex real world, rather than striving for unattainable perfection in an imaginary simplified world.

5. Perfection in Design is an Unattainable Ideal

Even in nature, absolute perfection, in the sense of something being completely flawless, is rare, if not totally absent.

Design's Limits. Absolute perfection, defined as something completely flawless, is an unrealistic goal in design. Every design, whether in nature or made by humans, inevitably has imperfections and shortcomings. The pursuit of perfection is a driving force, but the acceptance of imperfection is a necessary reality.

Examples of Imperfection:

• Irregularities in botanical or zoological specimens
• Impurities in minerals
• Flaws in gems

Comparative Improvement. Designs are evaluated against one another, not against an absolute standard of perfection. A "better mousetrap" is praised for being better, not for being perfect. The quest for improvement is endless, with each design building upon earlier iterations.

6. Context Profoundly Shapes Design

Design must always be done within a context, which makes some things difficult and others impossible—regardless of the time in history.

Design's Setting. The context in which design takes place—including the time period, available technology, cultural norms, and intended use—significantly influences the design process and its outcomes. What is possible or desirable in one context may be impossible or undesirable in another.

Examples of Contextual Influence:

• The design of a drinking glass must allow it to hold water and remain upright
• The design of a garage must conform to zoning rules and property lines
• The design of a headlight must consider the glare it produces for other drivers

Adaptation and Evolution. Designs evolve over time as contexts change. The public water fountain, once a ubiquitous feature, is now becoming obsolete due to the popularity of bottled water. The design of the Brita water pitcher has evolved to address user frustrations and improve functionality.

7. Design is a Constant Process of Improvement

So much of invention and design is, in fact, but improvement on an earlier improvement, a refinement of the “prior art,” as the unimproved technology is referred to in the patent literature.

Design's Iteration. Design is rarely a one-time event but rather an ongoing process of refinement and improvement. New designs build upon existing ones, addressing shortcomings and incorporating new technologies or insights. The patent literature reflects this iterative nature, with many patents titled "Improvement in..."

Examples of Iterative Design:

• The evolution of the paper cup from folded bags to pleated cups to cone-shaped cups
• The development of the automobile roof from cloth tops to transparent panels to retractable hard tops to sunroofs
• The evolution of the Brita pitcher top

The Better Mousetrap. The concept of the "better mousetrap" embodies the paradigm for invention, emphasizing comparative improvement rather than absolute perfection. No designer is likely to claim to have created the "best mousetrap," as that would preclude further innovation.

8. Design is a Balance of Form and Function

Neither form nor function should overwhelm the other in design, but in the real world, one is often achieved at the expense of the other.

Design's Dichotomy. Ideal design seeks to harmonize aesthetics, usability, and effectiveness. However, in practice, achieving a perfect balance between form and function is challenging, and one often comes at the expense of the other.

Examples of Imbalance:

• Architects may prioritize form over function, creating beautiful but impractical buildings
• Engineers may prioritize function over aesthetics, creating sturdy but unattractive structures
• User interfaces may be sacrificed for the sake of form and function

User Interface. The user interface, though ideally transparent, often gets short shrift compared to considerations of form and function. Donald Norman, a psychologist and computer scientist, has noted that strict adherence to user-interface principles can result in "useful but ugly" designs.

9. Design is Influenced by Cultural Norms and Expectations

In France, which has a tradition of Napoleonic law, to be legal, something must be specified as permitted.

Design's Context. Cultural norms, traditions, and expectations play a significant role in shaping design. What is considered acceptable or desirable in one culture may be viewed differently in another. These cultural influences can affect everything from regulatory standards to aesthetic preferences.

Examples of Cultural Influence:

• Different regulatory standards for headlight glare in Europe and the United States
• The controversial introduction of cup holders into Volvo cars, reflecting American expectations
• The persistence of separate hot and cold "pillar taps" in British bathrooms

Social Design. Design can also be a social act, reflecting and shaping social norms. The courtesy of dimming headlights on a two-lane road is an example of social design, where technology is used to facilitate communication and cooperation between strangers.

10. Design Can Emerge From Serendipity

It is the irritant in the oyster that produces the pearl.

Design's Accidental Discoveries. Some of the most significant design innovations have arisen from accidental discoveries or unexpected events. These serendipitous moments can lead to breakthroughs that transform entire industries.

Examples of Serendipitous Design:

• The discovery of the microwave oven when Percy Spencer's chocolate bar melted near a magnetron
• The invention of the bubble-jet printer when Ichiro Endo accidentally touched a soldering iron to a syringe filled with ink
• The discovery of Teflon when Roy Plunkett's TFE polymerized unexpectedly

Embracing the Unexpected. Serendipity highlights the importance of being open to unexpected results and willing to explore unforeseen possibilities. The ability to recognize and capitalize on these accidental discoveries is a hallmark of successful designers.

11. Design is a Social Act

We think, therefore we design.

Design's Collective Nature. Design is not solely the domain of individual inventors or engineers but a collective endeavor that involves users, manufacturers, retailers, and society at large. The success of a design depends on its ability to meet the needs and expectations of a diverse group of stakeholders.

Examples of Social Influence:

• The Anti-Saloon League's promotion of water machines as an alternative to saloons
• The influence of Dr. Alvin Davison's article on the dangers of communal drinking cups
• The role of Phoebe Snow in advertising individual drinking cups on Lackawanna trains

User Feedback. The feedback from users plays a crucial role in the iterative design process. By observing how people interact with a design in real-world settings, designers can identify flaws and make improvements.

12. Design is a Reflection of Human Origins

That nothing is perfect is not an indictment of design, but an acknowledgment of its human origins.

Design's Imperfections. Because design is a human endeavor, it is inherently imperfect. The limitations of human perception, judgment, and skill inevitably lead to flaws and shortcomings in even the most carefully crafted designs.

Examples of Human Limitations:

• The difficulty of anticipating all possible uses of a design
• The tendency to overlook certain details during the design process
• The influence of personal biases and preferences on design choices

Embracing Imperfection. Recognizing the human origins of design allows us to appreciate its achievements while acknowledging its limitations. The pursuit of good design is not about achieving an unattainable ideal but about striving to create things that are as attractive, usable, and efficacious as possible within the constraints of the real world.

Last updated: February 14, 2025