The Existentialist's Guide to Death, the Universe and Nothingness

1. Existentialism explores the human condition and individual freedom

Existentialism is primarily concerned with providing a coherent description of the human condition that fully recognises and incorporates the fundamental or existential truths relating to that condition.

Core existentialist beliefs. Existentialism posits that humans are free, responsible beings in a meaningless universe. Key ideas include:

• Existence precedes essence - we have no predetermined nature
• We are "condemned to be free" and must create our own meaning
• We are responsible for our choices and actions
• Life has no inherent purpose or meaning beyond what we choose to give it

Influential thinkers. Major existentialist philosophers and writers include:

• Søren Kierkegaard
• Friedrich Nietzsche
• Jean-Paul Sartre
• Simone de Beauvoir
• Albert Camus

Existentialism emerged as a reaction against traditional philosophies that viewed humans as having a fixed nature or essence. It emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice.

2. Consciousness is nothingness in relation to being

Consciousness does not exist as a thing, it is not any kind of object. It is not a mental substance, as the philosopher Descartes supposed, existing in its own right and then entertaining thoughts. In fact, it is nothing in itself. It exists only in relation to what it is consciousness of.

Consciousness as negation. For existentialists, consciousness is not a thing but a relation to being. Key aspects include:

• Consciousness is the negation or denial of being-in-itself
• It has no essence or nature of its own
• It exists as a lack or "nothingness" in relation to being

Intentionality of consciousness. Consciousness is always consciousness of something:

• It is directed towards objects in the world
• It gives meaning and structure to our experience
• There is no consciousness without an object of consciousness

This view challenges the notion of consciousness as a substance or thing. Instead, it is seen as an active process of engaging with and giving meaning to the world.

3. Human existence is characterized by anxiety and responsibility

Anxiety in this context is called vertigo.

Existential anxiety. Anxiety stems from our radical freedom and responsibility:

• We are "condemned to be free" with no fixed nature to guide us
• We must constantly choose who to be and how to act
• There is no external source of meaning or values

Types of anxiety:

• Anxiety about the possibility of our own actions (e.g. vertigo)
• Anxiety about our future choices and who we will become
• Anxiety about the lack of external meaning or purpose

Responsibility. We are ultimately responsible for our choices and actions:

• We cannot blame circumstances, instincts, or others for who we are
• Even not choosing is a choice for which we are responsible
• This responsibility can be a heavy burden, but also empowering

Existentialists argue that confronting our anxiety and responsibility is key to living authentically.

4. Authenticity involves embracing freedom and rejecting bad faith

Authenticity is the holy grail of existentialism, the great existentialist aspiration or ideal.

Authentic existence. Living authentically means:

• Recognizing and embracing our radical freedom
• Taking full responsibility for our choices and actions
• Creating our own values and meaning
• Rejecting societal roles and expectations that limit our freedom

Bad faith. The opposite of authenticity is bad faith:

• Denying our freedom and responsibility
• Pretending we have a fixed nature or essence
• Letting others or society define who we are
• Making excuses for our actions or blaming circumstances

Authenticity is an ongoing project, not a fixed state. It requires constant vigilance against the temptation of bad faith and the comfort of conformity.

5. Relationships with others are central to human experience

Hell is other people!

Being-for-others. Our relationships with others are fundamental to our existence:

• We are aware of ourselves as objects for others
• Others can limit our freedom and possibilities
• But we also need others to recognize and validate our existence

Conflict in relationships. Sartre argues that conflict is inherent in human relationships:

• We desire to possess the other's freedom while maintaining our own
• This leads to a constant struggle for dominance or submission
• Even love involves trying to capture the other's freedom

Positive aspects. Despite the potential for conflict, relationships are essential:

• They allow us to see ourselves from new perspectives
• They provide opportunities for growth and self-discovery
• They can give meaning and purpose to our lives

Existentialists emphasize the complexity and importance of our relations with others, seeing them as both a source of conflict and a necessary part of human existence.

6. The body is fundamental to consciousness and being-in-the-world

To be embodied is not to have a body, but to be a body, and it is inconceivable to both Merleau-Ponty and Sartre that being a subject in the world could be achieved in any other way than by being a body.

Embodied consciousness. For existentialists, consciousness is necessarily embodied:

• We experience the world through our bodies
• Our bodily situation shapes our perception and possibilities
• The body is not an object we possess, but our way of being-in-the-world

Body-subject. Merleau-Ponty introduces the concept of the "body-subject":

• Challenges the mind-body dualism
• The body is both subject and object, perceiver and perceived
• Our bodily experience is the foundation of all knowledge and meaning

Lived body. The body as we experience it is different from the objective body:

• It is our point of view on the world
• It is the center of our action and perception
• It is often "transparent" in our everyday experience

This emphasis on embodiment is a key aspect of existentialist thought, rejecting traditional mind-body dualism in favor of a more holistic view of human existence.

7. Emotions are intentional ways of apprehending the world

Emotion is a magical behaviour which tries, by incantation, to realise the possession of the desired object as an instantaneous totality.

Emotions as intentional. Existentialists view emotions as ways of relating to the world:

• Emotions are not just internal states, but ways of apprehending situations
• They involve both bodily changes and cognitive appraisals
• Emotions reveal the meaning and significance of things for us

Sartre's theory of emotions:

• Emotions are "magical" transformations of the world
• They arise when we can't cope with a situation through ordinary means
• Emotions change our perception to make the situation more manageable

Examples:

• Anger transforms a difficult person into someone we can righteously condemn
• Fear makes a dangerous situation into one we can flee from
• Joy transforms a desired object into one we can possess immediately

This view of emotions emphasizes their active, meaning-making role in our experience, rather than seeing them as passive reactions to events.

8. Existence is ultimately contingent and absurd

The contingency of existence as a whole implies that each particular thing in existence is contingent; absurd in its strange, ultimately pointless and unaccountable presence.

Contingency of existence. Existentialists argue that existence is fundamentally contingent:

• There is no necessary reason for the universe or ourselves to exist
• Everything could have been otherwise or not at all
• This contingency can provoke a sense of vertigo or nausea

Absurdity of life. The human search for meaning in a meaningless universe is absurd:

• We seek purpose and significance in a world that offers none
• Our projects and values have no ultimate justification
• Yet we cannot help but continue to create meaning

Responses to absurdity:

• Suicide (rejected by most existentialists)
• Religious faith (embraced by some, rejected by others)
• Accepting the absurd and creating our own meaning (Camus' recommendation)

Recognizing the contingency and absurdity of existence is a key step towards authentic living, according to existentialists.

9. Religious existentialism emphasizes personal faith over reason

For religious existentialists, genuine religious faith is not about passively adopting certain communal beliefs by assenting to questionable propositions, it is about one's moment by moment attitude to life, death and the infinite.

Faith as commitment. Religious existentialists emphasize:

• Personal, passionate commitment to belief
• Faith as an ongoing act of will, not passive acceptance
• The importance of doubt and uncertainty in genuine faith

Critique of traditional religion:

• Rejects attempts to prove God's existence through reason
• Criticizes passive acceptance of religious dogma
• Emphasizes individual relationship with the divine over institutional religion

Key thinkers:

• Søren Kierkegaard
• Karl Jaspers
• Gabriel Marcel
• Paul Tillich

Religious existentialism seeks to reconcile existentialist ideas about freedom and authenticity with religious belief, emphasizing a more personal and dynamic approach to faith.

Last updated: August 20, 2024