The History of Sexuality, Volume 2

1. Sexuality as a Modern Construct, Not a Universal Constant

My aim was not to write a history of sexual behaviors and practices, tracing their successive forms, their evolution, and their dissemination; nor was it to analyze the scientific, religious, or philosophical ideas through which these behaviors have been represented.

"Sexuality" is a recent idea. Foucault argues that the concept of "sexuality" as a distinct and defining aspect of identity is a relatively modern invention, emerging in the 19th century. It's not a timeless, universal human experience but a product of specific historical and cultural forces.

• Before the 19th century, people didn't see themselves as subjects of a "sexuality" in the way we do today.
• The term "sexuality" arose alongside new fields of knowledge, social norms, and ways of understanding the self.
• Foucault's goal is to analyze how this "experience" of sexuality came to be, not to trace the history of sexual acts or ideas.

Breaking with the idea of a constant sexuality. Foucault challenges the notion that sexuality is a fixed entity that has been repressed throughout history. Instead, he sees it as a historically specific experience shaped by power relations, knowledge systems, and forms of self-understanding.

• He rejects the idea that desire is a constant force that is simply repressed by society.
• He argues that the very idea of "desire" and the "desiring subject" are themselves historical constructs.
• He seeks to analyze the practices through which individuals came to see themselves as subjects of desire.

Genealogy of the desiring subject. Foucault's project is a "genealogy" of the desiring subject, exploring how individuals have been led to focus on themselves, decipher their desires, and recognize themselves as subjects of a "sexuality." This involves analyzing the practices through which individuals have been led to understand themselves as desiring beings.

• He examines how individuals have been led to practice a "hermeneutics of desire," a way of interpreting and understanding their own desires.
• He argues that sexual behavior is not the exclusive domain of this hermeneutics, but rather an occasion for it.
• He seeks to understand how the modern individual came to experience themselves as a subject of "sexuality."

2. The Greeks Viewed "Aphrodisia" as a Force, Not a Fixed Identity

The Greeks were fond of using a nominalized adjective: ta aphrodisia, which the Romans translated roughly as venerea.

"Aphrodisia" as acts and pleasures. The Greeks used the term "aphrodisia" to refer to the acts, gestures, and contacts that produce sexual pleasure. Unlike our concept of "sexuality," which encompasses a wide range of behaviors, sensations, and identities, "aphrodisia" was more focused on the physical acts themselves.

• The Greeks did not have a single concept that grouped together all the phenomena we call "sexual."
• They were more concerned with the dynamics of the act, the pleasure it produced, and the desire it aroused.
• They did not focus on classifying or deciphering the different forms of sexual acts.

Act, desire, and pleasure as a dynamic unity. For the Greeks, the act, the desire, and the pleasure were closely linked in a dynamic unity. They were not seen as separate entities but as elements of a circular process.

• Desire was seen as a natural response to the representation of pleasure.
• Pleasure was seen as a natural consequence of the act.
• The ethical question was not about the nature of the act, desire, or pleasure, but about the force with which one was carried away by them.

Two key variables: quantity and role. The Greeks analyzed sexual activity in terms of two main variables: quantity and role.

• Quantity referred to the intensity and frequency of sexual acts.
• Role referred to the active or passive position in the sexual act.
• Excess and passivity were seen as the two main forms of immorality in the practice of "aphrodisia."

3. "Chrēsis": The Art of Using Pleasures, Not Just Repressing Them

It was much more a question of a variable adjustment in which one had to take different factors into account: the element of want and natural necessity; that of opportuneness, which was temporal and circumstantial; that of the status of the individual himself.

"Chrēsis" as a practice of moderation. The Greeks were not primarily concerned with establishing a rigid code of sexual conduct. Instead, they focused on the concept of "chrēsis," which refers to the art of using pleasures in a way that is appropriate and measured.

• "Chrēsis" was not about repression but about the skillful management of sexual activity.
• It involved taking into account various factors, such as need, timing, and social status.
• It was a practice of prudence, reflection, and calculation.

Three strategies of "chrēsis":

1. Need: Satisfying natural desires without creating artificial ones.
2. Timeliness: Considering the appropriate time for sexual activity based on life stage, season, and other activities.
3. Status: Adapting sexual conduct to one's social position and responsibilities.

Avoiding immoderation. The goal of "chrēsis" was to avoid immoderation, which was seen as a behavior that did not have its basis in nature. Immoderation could take two forms:

• Plethora: Seeking excessive pleasure beyond what is necessary.
• Artifice: Seeking unnatural pleasures that go beyond natural needs.
• Moderation was not about nullifying pleasures but about using them in a way that was based on need and reason.

4. "Enkrateia": Self-Mastery as a Battle Within, Not Just External Conformity

In short, for an action to be “moral,” it must not be reducible to an act or a series of acts conforming to a rule, a law, or a value.

"Enkrateia" as self-control. The Greeks valued "enkrateia," which refers to self-mastery and the ability to control one's desires and pleasures. It was not simply about conforming to external rules but about an internal struggle for self-domination.

• "Enkrateia" was seen as an active process of resistance and combat against one's own desires.
• It was about achieving a state of rule of the self over the self.
• It was a prerequisite for "sōphrosynē," which is a more general state of moderation and balance.

Agonistic relationship with oneself. The practice of "enkrateia" involved an agonistic relationship with oneself, a battle between the rational and irrational parts of the soul.

• Desires and pleasures were seen as a formidable enemy force that needed to be subdued.
• The individual had to take the position of an adversary with respect to their own desires.
• This struggle was not about eliminating desires but about controlling them.

Training for self-mastery. The development of "enkrateia" required training and practice, similar to the training of an athlete or a soldier.

• It was not enough to simply know what was right; one had to actively work to transform oneself into an ethical subject.
• This training involved exercises of self-control, self-reflection, and self-examination.
• It was a process of self-formation that was essential for ethical conduct.

5. Moderation as Freedom, Not Just Abstinence

To do what is best appears to you to be freedom, and so you think that to have masters who will prevent such activity is bondage.

Freedom from internal slavery. For the Greeks, moderation was not just about abstaining from pleasures but about achieving a state of freedom from the tyranny of one's own desires.

• The opposite of freedom was not natural determinism but enslavement to one's own appetites.
• To be free in relation to pleasures was to be free of their authority.
• It was about being able to choose one's actions based on reason, not on the dictates of desire.

Freedom as power over oneself. This freedom was not just about independence from external constraints but also about the power one had over oneself.

• It was about being able to control one's desires and pleasures, not being controlled by them.
• It was about achieving a state of self-mastery that enabled one to act in accordance with reason.
• It was a form of active freedom that was essential for both individual and civic life.

Virile character of moderation. Moderation was seen as a "virile" virtue, a way of being a man with respect to oneself.

• It was about commanding what needed commanding and coercing what was not capable of self-direction.
• It was about imposing principles of reason on what was wanting in reason.
• It was a way of being active in relation to what was by nature passive.

6. Dietetics: Regulating Sexual Activity as Part of a Holistic Regimen

This dynamics was defined by the movement that linked the aphrodisia to the pleasure that was associated with them and to the desire to which they gave rise.

Regimen as a way of life. The Greeks saw dietetics not just as a set of rules about food but as a comprehensive approach to managing one's life, including sexual activity.

• Regimen was about regulating all aspects of physical life, including exercise, food, drink, sleep, and sexual relations.
• It was about maintaining a balance between the body and its environment.
• It was a way of problematizing behavior in relation to nature.

Sexual activity as a force to be managed. Sexual activity was seen as a natural force that needed to be managed and regulated.

• It was not inherently bad, but it had the potential to be excessive and harmful.
• The goal of dietetics was to integrate sexual activity into a holistic regimen that promoted health and well-being.
• It was about determining the proper degree and extent to which sexual activity could be practiced.

Emphasis on quantity and timing. The dietetic approach to sexual activity focused on quantity and timing rather than on the specific forms of sexual acts.

• It was about determining the appropriate frequency and intensity of sexual activity.
• It was about considering the conditions in which sexual activity was experienced, such as the season, time of day, and individual constitution.
• It was about maintaining an equilibrium in the dynamics of pleasure and desire.

7. Economics: Marriage as a Social and Political Arrangement, Not Just a Personal Bond

Mistresses we keep for the sake of pleasure, concubines for the daily care of our persons, but wives to bear us legitimate children and to be faithful guardians of our households.

Marriage as a social and political institution. The Greeks viewed marriage primarily as a social and political arrangement, not just a personal bond between two individuals.

• Wives were expected to bear legitimate children and manage the household.
• Husbands were expected to provide for their families and participate in civic life.
• The focus was on the roles and responsibilities of each partner within the larger social order.

Husband's moderation as a matter of status. The moderation that was expected of husbands was not primarily about sexual fidelity but about maintaining their status and authority.

• It was about exercising self-control in the use of their power and freedom.
• It was about setting an example of good conduct for their families and communities.
• It was about fulfilling their responsibilities as heads of households and citizens.

Dissymmetry in marital obligations. The obligations of husbands and wives were not symmetrical.

• Wives were expected to be sexually faithful to their husbands because they were under their authority.
• Husbands were not bound by the same obligation, but they were expected to be moderate in their sexual behavior.
• The emphasis was on the husband's responsibility to maintain order and stability in the household.

8. Erotics: The Complexities of Male Love and the Pursuit of Honor

Every sensible person knows very well that love relations with a boy are not “absolutely either honorable or shameful but for the most part vary according to the persons concerned,” so that it would be “unreasonable to adopt the same attitude” in every case.

Male love as a complex practice. The Greeks had a complex and nuanced understanding of male love, which was not simply a matter of "homosexuality" or "tolerance."

• It was a practice that was both accepted and valued, but also subject to intense moral scrutiny.
• It was not seen as a fixed identity but as a form of relationship that could be both honorable and shameful.
• It was a practice that was shaped by social conventions, cultural values, and ethical considerations.

Emphasis on the active/passive roles. The Greeks emphasized the distinction between the active and passive roles in sexual relations.

• The active role was associated with masculinity, dominance, and self-control.
• The passive role was associated with femininity, submission, and a lack of self-mastery.
• The ethical question was not about the object of desire but about the role one played in the sexual act.

The boy's honor as a key concern. The honor of the boy was a central concern in the Greek discourse on male love.

• It was about maintaining his dignity, self-respect, and social standing.
• It was about avoiding behaviors that would be seen as shameful or degrading.
• It was about developing the qualities that would make him a virtuous and honorable citizen.

9. True Love: A Path to Truth, Not Just a Source of Pleasure

The virtue of each thing, a tool, a body, and, further, a soul and a whole animal, doesn’t come to be present in the best way just at random, but by some structure and correctness and craft [taxis, orthotēs, technē], the one that is assigned to each of them.

Love as a path to truth. Platonic erotics transformed the traditional understanding of love, seeing it not just as a source of pleasure but as a path to truth and knowledge.

• True love was not about the physical attraction to a beautiful body but about the desire for the beautiful itself.
• It was about the soul's yearning for the eternal and the divine.
• It was a process of self-discovery and self-transformation.

The lover as a seeker of truth. The lover was not just a pursuer of pleasure but a seeker of truth.

• He was driven by a desire for something beyond the physical realm.
• He was on a journey of self-discovery, seeking to understand the true nature of beauty and goodness.
• He was guided by reason and a desire for knowledge.

The beloved as a reflection of beauty. The beloved was not just an object of desire but a reflection of beauty itself.

• He was a reminder of the eternal forms that the soul had once beheld.
• He was a catalyst for the lover's journey toward truth.
• He was a partner in the pursuit of wisdom and understanding.

Last updated: January 26, 2025