The Moral Life of Children

1. Moral Life Transcends Clinical Psychology

A well-developed conscience does not translate, necessarily, into a morally courageous life.

Beyond defense mechanisms. Robert Coles, influenced by his wife Jane, found traditional psychoanalytic concepts like "defense mechanisms" insufficient to fully explain the moral texture of children's lives. While psychological theories offer insights into internal conflicts and motivations, they often fall short in accounting for acts of profound moral courage or ethical behavior, especially in the face of severe adversity. Coles observed that individuals might possess a strong conscience or intellectual capacity for moral analysis, yet lack the everyday willingness to confront injustice.

Deeds over diagnoses. Coles initially approached children's struggles through a psychiatric lens, seeking to identify symptoms or psychological coping strategies. However, he was repeatedly challenged by the children themselves, and by his wife, to look beyond pathology to their active moral lives. Children like Ruby Bridges, who bravely faced segregationist mobs, demonstrated a moral strength that couldn't be reduced to mere "denial" or "reaction formation." Their actions spoke volumes about their values and ideals, often defying conventional psychological categorization.

The conscience as a given. For Coles, the conscience, or superego, was often treated as a "given" in his early training—an internalized force shaped by family life. Yet, he realized that this perspective overlooked the child's role as a citizen, a churchgoer, or an actor in historical events. The moral life, he concluded, is not solely a product of internal psychodynamics but is deeply intertwined with broader social, cultural, and religious contexts, demanding a more holistic and observational approach.

2. Character Forged in Adversity, Not Just Affluence

The truth is that many of the qualities we admire in human beings can only function in opposition to some kind of disaster, pain or difficulty.

Orwell's paradox. Drawing on George Orwell's observations, Coles explores the paradoxical idea that admirable human qualities often emerge most powerfully in response to "disaster, pain or difficulty." He questions the assumption that material progress automatically fosters moral development, noting that comfort can sometimes lead to complacency or self-absorption. Instead, he found profound dignity and resilience in individuals facing extreme hardship.

Vulnerability's lessons. Children like Eduardo from a Brazilian favela or Marty, a migrant farm child, exemplify this paradox. Despite living in abject poverty, facing constant threats of hunger, illness, and violence, they exhibit remarkable qualities:

• Subtle intelligence
• Compassionate regard for others
• Alert sense of humor
• Stubborn persistence and modesty
• Unwavering composure

These children's moral purpose is often rooted in their daily struggle for survival, transforming their vulnerability into a source of strength and ethical clarity.

Beyond "exceptional" cases. Coles resists labeling such children as merely "exceptional" or "special," arguing that this risks condescension. Instead, he suggests that their experiences highlight a universal human capacity to develop admirable qualities even in the most unpromising circumstances. Their lives challenge the notion that moral strength is exclusive to the privileged, demonstrating how profound adversity can cultivate a deep-seated decency and a tenacious will to live with integrity.

3. Children as Active Moral Agents

Ruby had a will and used it to make an ethical choice; she demonstrated moral stamina; she possessed honor, courage.

Defying developmental stages. Coles challenges theories like Kohlberg's, which might place children like Ruby Bridges at "pre-conventional" stages of moral development. Ruby, at age six, consistently prayed for her tormentors during school desegregation, an act of profound Christian charity. This behavior, far from being mere imitation or fearful piety, demonstrated a sophisticated moral understanding and agency that transcended her age or cognitive limitations.

Moral action over abstract thought. Coles emphasizes that moral life is not just about abstract reasoning or hypothetical responses to dilemmas, but about concrete actions and choices made in real-world situations. He recounts the story of a white Atlanta youth who, despite a "redneck" background, spontaneously intervened to protect a black student from bullies. This act, born of sudden impulse rather than forethought, marked a significant moral shift in his life, demonstrating that character can emerge unexpectedly.

The power of personal witness. Children often become "moral witnesses," not just passively absorbing societal norms but actively interpreting and responding to them. Ruby's ability to distinguish between social appearance and moral reality, or her belief that fictional characters could influence real-world behavior, illustrates their active engagement. Their moral insights, though sometimes expressed simply, reveal a deep capacity for ethical reflection and judgment.

4. Narrative and Art Stir Moral Imagination

Characters in a movie had become aspects of a young mind’s moral seriousness.

Movies as moral occasions. Coles observed that films, even seemingly innocuous ones, could become profound "moral occasions" for children. Rather than merely being passive consumers, children actively engaged with movie narratives, drawing connections to their own lives and moral dilemmas. This engagement often transcended the filmmakers' explicit intentions, revealing the children's capacity for moral imagination.

Connecting fiction to reality. Children like Ruby Bridges found moral lessons in films like "A Raisin in the Sun" and "To Kill a Mockingbird." Ruby, for instance, focused on the mother-daughter conflict over religious faith in "A Raisin in the Sun," connecting it to her own understanding of obedience and genuine belief. Similarly, in "To Kill a Mockingbird," she was deeply impressed by Boo Radley's transformation from a feared eccentric to a protective hero, seeing a parallel to the misjudged "good people" in her own community.

Beyond simple influence. Children's responses to movies were not mere "reflex reactions" or "behavioral consequences" of stimuli. An Albuquerque boy, a fan of Westerns, could enjoy the genre's escapism without adopting its historical inaccuracies or simplistic morality. He used the films to reflect on themes of honesty, justice, and the complexities of human nature, demonstrating that children possess a critical distance and an ability to sort out truth from fiction.

5. Idealism: A Complex, Enduring Human Drive

There are young men and women who become, in their minds, so identified with certain people [that] their sacrifices and personal renunciations are felt to be pleasurable — because meant for themselves as well as others!

Beyond self-sacrifice. Anna Freud cautioned against idealizing youthful idealism, suggesting that even profound self-sacrifice can be intertwined with personal desires or psychological conflicts. Coles's observations of civil rights activists confirmed this complexity. A young man dedicated to working with the poor in rural Georgia, for instance, found deep personal satisfaction and a sense of belonging in his work, acknowledging that his "sacrifices" were also a form of self-fulfillment.

The "healing" of helping. Coles noted that for some idealists, helping others became a way of "healing himself, or herself." This "altruism" involved a deep identification with the people being assisted, blurring the lines between giver and receiver. The young activist felt "lost" when away from his community, indicating that his work had become an integral part of his identity and well-being, rather than a purely selfless act.

Idealism's persistent challenges. Idealism is not a static state but a continuous struggle. The young activist grappled with anger, cynicism, and the temptation to abandon his work for a more conventional life. Dorothy Day, a lifelong idealist, openly confessed her own struggles with pride and anger, emphasizing that true idealism involves constant self-awareness and a willingness to confront one's own egoism. This ongoing self-reflection, rather than a pristine purity, marks a robust idealism.

6. The Moral Construction of the "Other"

The creation of the moral Other... the creation of the other as a way of protecting, and of concealing, the secret wishes of the self.

Defining self through "them." Coles explores how individuals, including children, define their moral identity by constructing an "Other." This "moral attribution" can be a psychological maneuver to protect the self, project one's own shortcomings, or justify one's social position. William Dorrit in "Little Dorrit" exemplifies this, transforming a friendly visitor from his past into a terrifying threat to his newly acquired social status, revealing his deep insecurity and shame.

Prejudice as self-protection. Children often internalize and express the prejudices of their families and communities, using "them" (racial, ethnic, or class groups) as scapegoats for their own anxieties or frustrations. A wealthy New Orleans girl, for instance, rationalized segregation by attributing laziness or lack of intelligence to black and poor white people, while simultaneously expressing her parents' anxieties about social standing and the disruption of the status quo. This allowed her to maintain a sense of moral superiority and comfort.

Beyond negative attribution. While often used for negative projections, the "Other" can also be a source of positive moral attribution. The New Orleans girl, despite her prejudices, also expressed admiration for black people's resilience and believed God had a "special place" for them. Similarly, a grateful boy in rural Georgia elevated his friend, a rescuer, to a Christ-like figure. This shows that moral attribution is a complex, often contradictory process, reflecting both the darker and more hopeful aspects of human nature.

7. Social Class Shapes Moral Priorities

Class persuasively tells us what really counts in this life.

Divergent concerns. Coles found that social class profoundly influences what children perceive as morally compelling issues. While affluent children, particularly those whose parents were involved in the nuclear freeze movement, expressed deep anxiety about nuclear war, children from poor or working-class backgrounds rarely prioritized this concern. Their moral preoccupations were shaped by more immediate and tangible threats.

Immediate vs. abstract threats. For children in Roxbury, Boston, or migrant camps in Florida, the "apocalypse" was not a nuclear bomb but the daily reality of:

• Drug and alcohol abuse
• Unemployment
• Dilapidated housing and fires
• Hunger and malnutrition
• Constant financial struggle

These children's drawings and conversations focused on these immediate, life-threatening issues, viewing them as their personal "nightmare" or "holocaust."

Parental influence and "moral notice." The presence or absence of parental encouragement also played a significant role. Children of affluent, politically active parents were more likely to adopt the nuclear threat as a moral issue. In contrast, working-class parents, like the factory worker worried about gas money, often instilled in their children a focus on daily survival and economic stability, leaving little "room for any other worries inside their head than the big ones already there." This highlights how class dictates not just resources, but also the very criteria for what demands "moral notice."

8. The Unpredictable Nature of Moral Development

Every limit is a beginning as well as an ending. Who can quit young lives after being in long company with them, and not desire to know what befell them in their after-years?

Life's unexpected turns. Coles, echoing George Eliot, emphasizes that moral development is not a linear, predictable path. Children's lives are "not the sample of an even web," and early promises or apparent character traits can be followed by "declension," or conversely, "latent powers may find their long-waited opportunity." He acknowledges the inherent mystery in how individuals navigate life's challenges and evolve morally.

Beyond fixed traits. The concept of "character" itself, as explored with high school students, was seen not as a rigid possession but as a continuous struggle. Students recognized that individuals are a mix of good and bad, and that character involves actively striving for principles, risking unpopularity, and demonstrating honesty, even when unrewarded. This dynamic view contrasts with static psychological diagnoses, highlighting the ongoing, fluid nature of moral identity.

The enduring quest for meaning. Whether facing personal tragedy, social injustice, or existential threats, children and adults alike grapple with fundamental questions of right and wrong, purpose, and belonging. Coles's long-term observations reveal that even in the most vulnerable, there is an active, often defiant, moral purpose. This quest for meaning, though shaped by circumstance, remains a deeply personal and often unpredictable journey, defying easy categorization or definitive prediction.