The Origins of Totalitarianism

1. The Precarious Balance: Jews, Nation-States, and Power

Antisemitism reached its climax when Jews had similarly lost their public functions and their influence, and were left with nothing but their wealth.

State Dependence. The rise of the nation-state created a unique, precarious position for Jews. They were granted equality, yet simultaneously preserved as a separate group due to their financial services to the state. This created a dependence on the state for protection and privileges, rather than integration into society.

• Jews were neither a class nor part of any class, but a group defined by their relationship to the state.
• This dependence made them vulnerable when the state's needs changed.
• The state's interest in preserving Jews as a separate group coincided with the Jewish interest in self-preservation.

Inter-European Element. Jews, lacking their own territory, became an inter-European element, useful for state finance and international relations. This role, however, was contingent on the stability of the nation-state system.

• They served as financial intermediaries and providers of news across national borders.
• Their international status became a liability when the nation-state system began to crumble.
• The loss of their public functions and influence left them with wealth but without power, making them targets of resentment.

Contradictions of Emancipation. Emancipation was both a grant of equality and an extension of privileges, creating a fundamental contradiction. This led to a situation where Jews were simultaneously overprivileged (under state protection) and underprivileged (lacking full social acceptance).

• The state needed Jewish financial support but also wanted to prevent their full assimilation.
• Jews, in turn, sought privileges and special liberties rather than equal rights.
• This created a precarious balance that was bound to collapse.

2. The Rise of Antisemitism: From Social Prejudice to Political Weapon

Antisemitism reached its climax when Jews had similarly lost their public functions and their influence, and were left with nothing but their wealth.

Social Resentment. Antisemitism grew as Jews lost their public functions and influence, leaving them with wealth but without power. This made them appear as parasites, fueling resentment.

• Wealth without visible function is more intolerable than exploitation.
• The Dreyfus Affair and Austrian antisemitism became violent when Jewish influence was already declining.
• Persecution of powerless groups is not just meanness but a reaction to wealth without power.

Scapegoat Theory. The idea that Jews were scapegoats for societal problems is a fallacy. While they were often blamed for larger conflicts, this theory ignores the specific historical context and the role Jews played in society.

• The scapegoat theory implies that any group could have been targeted.
• It ignores the specific historical and social factors that led to antisemitism.
• It absolves the persecutors of responsibility and denies the victim's agency.

Eternal Antisemitism. The notion of an eternal antisemitism is a dangerous myth. It absolves Jew-haters of responsibility and suggests that Jew-killing is a normal human occupation.

• It is a secularized travesty of the idea of chosenness and a Messianic hope.
• It is an attempt to escape responsibility for the horrors of antisemitism.
• It ignores the specific historical and political factors that led to modern antisemitism.

3. The Mob and the Elite: A Dangerous Alliance

The birth and growth of modern antisemitism has been accompanied by and interconnected with Jewish assimilation, the secularization and withering away of the old religious and spiritual values of Judaism.

The Mob's Role. The mob, composed of the déclassés of all classes, became a tool for antisemitic movements. They were mobilized by resentment against the state and the perceived power of the Jews.

• The mob was a by-product of the class system and the decline of the nation-state.
• They were attracted to antisemitism because it offered a target for their frustrations.
• They were easily manipulated by leaders who used antisemitic slogans for their own purposes.

The Elite's Attraction. The intellectual elite, disillusioned with the status quo, were drawn to the radicalism and anti-bourgeois sentiments of antisemitic movements. They saw in the Jews a symbol of the hypocrisy and corruption of society.

• They were attracted to the idea of a secret Jewish power that controlled the world.
• They were drawn to the idea of a chosen people, a concept that resonated with their own sense of superiority.
• They were fascinated by the idea of a world conspiracy, which offered a sense of order and meaning in a chaotic world.

A Dangerous Symbiosis. The alliance between the mob and the elite was a dangerous combination. The mob provided the raw energy and violence, while the elite provided the intellectual justification and ideological framework.

• This alliance was based on a shared hatred of the existing order.
• It was a temporary alliance that ultimately led to the destruction of both groups.
• It demonstrated the power of antisemitism as a tool for political mobilization.

4. The Dreyfus Affair: A Microcosm of Totalitarian Potential

This is a remarkable century which opened with the Revolution and ended with the Affaire! Perhaps it will be called the century of rubbish.

A Dress Rehearsal. The Dreyfus Affair was a microcosm of the political and social forces that would later lead to totalitarianism. It revealed the potential of antisemitism as a major political weapon.

• It exposed the fragility of the Third Republic and its institutions.
• It demonstrated the power of propaganda and the manipulation of public opinion.
• It showed how easily social prejudice could be transformed into political action.

The Key Players. The Affair involved a cast of characters who embodied the contradictions of the time: corrupt politicians, ambitious military officers, and a Jewish officer caught in the middle.

• Dreyfus was a victim of a system that was willing to sacrifice an individual for political gain.
• Picquart was a man of integrity who dared to challenge the established order.
• Zola was a writer who used his pen to fight for justice.

The Aftermath. The Affair left a lasting legacy of division and distrust in French society. It also demonstrated the limitations of legal and political institutions in the face of deeply ingrained prejudice.

• The Affair was never fully resolved, and its legacy continues to haunt France.
• It showed that even in a democratic society, justice can be easily subverted.
• It foreshadowed the horrors of the twentieth century, where the individual would be sacrificed for the sake of the state.

5. Imperialism: Expansion as an End in Itself

Expansion is everything.

Expansion as a Driving Force. Imperialism was driven by the need for constant expansion, not for specific economic or political goals. It was a new form of power politics that sought to dominate the world for its own sake.

• It was fueled by the overproduction of capital and the need for new markets.
• It was characterized by a shift from limited national interests to limitless power accumulation.
• It was a departure from traditional forms of conquest and empire building.

The Nation-State's Limitations. The nation-state proved to be ill-suited for imperialist expansion. Its political structure was based on a homogeneous population and limited territory, which were incompatible with the limitless ambitions of imperialism.

• The nation-state was designed for stability and self-preservation, not for constant expansion.
• It lacked the unifying principle needed to integrate diverse peoples and cultures.
• Its political narrowness and shortsightedness led to the disaster of totalitarianism.

The Rise of Power Politics. Imperialism marked a shift from localized, limited goals to the limitless pursuit of power. This shift was characterized by a disregard for traditional political and moral constraints.

• It led to the transformation of the state into a business concern.
• It created a new class of administrators who were primarily concerned with power.
• It undermined the republican institutions of the nation-state.

6. Race-Thinking: The Ideological Foundation of Domination

Modern antisemitism must be seen in the more general framework of the development of the nation-state, and at the same time its source must be found in certain aspects of Jewish history and specifically Jewish functions during the last centuries.

Race as a Tool. Race-thinking emerged as a way to justify imperialist domination and to create a sense of superiority among the colonizers. It was a pseudo-scientific ideology that claimed to explain the differences between peoples in terms of biology and heredity.

• It was used to justify the exploitation and oppression of non-European peoples.
• It was a way to create a sense of unity among the colonizers.
• It was a means of escaping responsibility for the horrors of imperialism.

The Perversion of Science. Race-thinking distorted scientific findings to support its claims. It used biology and anthropology to create a hierarchy of races, with Europeans at the top and non-Europeans at the bottom.

• It transformed scientific research into a tool for political propaganda.
• It created a false sense of certainty about the nature of human differences.
• It ignored the complex social and historical factors that shape human behavior.

The Destruction of Humanity. Race-thinking ultimately led to the destruction of human dignity and the denial of human rights. It created a world in which some people were considered to be more human than others.

• It paved the way for the horrors of the twentieth century, including the Holocaust.
• It demonstrated the dangers of using science to justify political oppression.
• It showed that human dignity needs a new guarantee that can be found only in a new political principle.

7. Totalitarianism in Power: The Logic of Destruction

The totalitarian attempt at global conquest and total domination has been the destructive way out of all impasses.

The End of Compromise. Totalitarianism is a form of government that seeks to eliminate all opposition and to create a world in which there is no room for dissent. It is a system that is based on the principle of total domination, not on the principle of compromise and negotiation.

• It rejects the idea of a balance of power and seeks to establish a single, all-powerful authority.
• It is not content with mere political control but seeks to dominate every aspect of human life.
• It is a system that is inherently unstable and prone to violence.

The Logic of Terror. Totalitarianism uses terror not as a means to an end, but as an end in itself. It is a system that is based on the principle of fear, not on the principle of justice or law.

• It seeks to create a world in which everyone is afraid of everyone else.
• It uses violence not only to suppress opposition but also to maintain its own power.
• It is a system that is inherently destructive and self-defeating.

The Destruction of Humanity. Totalitarianism ultimately seeks to destroy human nature itself. It is a system that is based on the principle of dehumanization, not on the principle of human dignity.

• It seeks to reduce human beings to mere cogs in a machine.
• It denies the value of individual life and the importance of human relationships.
• It is a system that is ultimately self-destructive and nihilistic.

8. The Totalitarian Movement: Organization and Control

The totalitarian attempt at global conquest and total domination has been the destructive way out of all impasses.

Mass Organization. Totalitarian movements organize masses, not classes or citizens. They depend on the sheer force of numbers and the complete loyalty of their members.

• They recruit from the politically indifferent and apathetic.
• They create a sense of belonging and purpose for those who feel isolated and alienated.
• They use propaganda and indoctrination to control the minds of their followers.

The Leader Principle. Totalitarian movements are organized around a single, all-powerful leader. This leader is not just a figurehead but the embodiment of the movement's ideology and will.

• The leader is seen as infallible and beyond criticism.
• He is the source of all authority and the ultimate arbiter of truth.
• He is the object of a cult of personality that borders on religious worship.

Elite Formations. Totalitarian movements create elite formations that are more loyal and more ruthless than the ordinary members. These formations are used to carry out the most extreme acts of violence and terror.

• They are trained to be completely obedient and to disregard all moral constraints.
• They are the instruments of the leader's will and the enforcers of the movement's ideology.
• They are the embodiment of the totalitarian principle of total domination.

9. Ideology and Terror: The Essence of Total Domination

The totalitarian attempt at global conquest and total domination has been the destructive way out of all impasses.

Ideological Control. Totalitarian regimes use ideology to control the minds of their subjects. They create a fictitious world that is more consistent and comprehensible than reality itself.

• They use propaganda to spread their ideology and to indoctrinate their followers.
• They use terror to enforce their ideology and to eliminate all opposition.
• They create a system of thought that is closed to all outside influences.

The Power of Logic. Totalitarian ideologies are based on a rigid and inflexible logic. They start from a single premise and deduce everything else from it.

• They are not interested in facts or evidence but only in the consistency of their system.
• They use logic to justify their actions and to silence all dissent.
• They create a world in which everything is predictable and nothing is left to chance.

Terror as a Tool. Totalitarian regimes use terror not just to suppress opposition but to create a state of constant fear and anxiety. This fear is used to control the behavior of their subjects and to prevent them from thinking for themselves.

• Terror is used to eliminate all spontaneity and to create a world of conditioned reflexes.
• It is used to destroy the moral person and to make people complicit in their own oppression.
• It is a system that is ultimately self-destructive and nihilistic.

10. The End of the Rights of Man: The Loss of a Common World

Antisemitism (not merely the hatred of Jews), imperialism (not merely conquest), totalitarianism (not merely dictatorship)—one after the other, one more brutally than the other, have demonstrated that human dignity needs a new guarantee which can be found only in a new political principle, in a new law on earth, whose validity this time must comprehend the whole of humanity while its power must remain strictly limited, rooted in and controlled by newly defined territorial entities.

The Loss of a Place in the World. The stateless and the refugees are the most visible victims of totalitarianism. They have lost their homes, their communities, and their legal status.

• They are no longer recognized as members of any political community.
• They are deprived of the rights and protections that are guaranteed to citizens.
• They are reduced to the status of mere human beings, without any specific identity or purpose.

The Loss of Human Dignity. The loss of a place in the world leads to the loss of human dignity. The stateless and the refugees are treated as if they are superfluous, as if their lives have no value.

• They are subjected to arbitrary violence and terror.
• They are denied the right to speak, to think, and to act.
• They are reduced to the status of living corpses, without any hope for the future.

The Need for a New Guarantee. The experience of totalitarianism has shown that the traditional concepts of human rights are inadequate. We need a new political principle that can guarantee the dignity and worth of every human being, regardless of their nationality or status.

• This new principle must be based on the recognition of the inherent value of every human life.
• It must be a principle that is universal and applicable to all people.
• It must be a principle that is capable of resisting the forces of totalitarianism and oppression.

Last updated: February 1, 2025