The Psychology of Language

1. Language is a uniquely human communication system.

“It is nothing other than words which has made us human.”

Beyond Animal Communication. While animals possess communication systems, human language stands apart due to its complexity, expressiveness, and capacity for abstraction. Unlike animal signals tied to immediate contexts, language allows us to discuss abstract concepts, past events, and future possibilities. This unique ability enables complex thought, social interaction, and cultural transmission.

Key features of human language:

• Syntax: Rules for combining words into meaningful sentences
• Semantics: The study of meaning in language
• Displacement: The ability to refer to things remote in time and space
• Creativity: The capacity to generate novel utterances

The Power of Words. Language is not merely a tool for communication; it shapes our perception of reality and enables us to construct complex social structures. It is the cornerstone of human culture and the foundation of our unique cognitive abilities.

2. Language acquisition requires biological, cognitive, and social foundations.

“Although language might not be all that makes us human, it is hard to imagine being human without it.”

Intertwined Foundations. Language development is not solely a matter of innate ability or environmental exposure; it requires a complex interplay of biological, cognitive, and social factors. The necessary biological hardware, cognitive prerequisites, and social interaction are all essential for language to develop normally.

Essential components:

• Biological: A brain capable of language processing, an articulatory apparatus for producing speech
• Cognitive: Conceptual understanding, memory, and attention
• Social: Exposure to language in a meaningful social context, interaction with caregivers

Exceptional Circumstances. Studying language acquisition in exceptional circumstances, such as in cases of linguistic deprivation or in children with learning difficulties, reveals the importance of these foundations and the consequences of their absence.

3. The human brain is specialized for language processing.

“I think that the study of the neuropsychology of language is fundamental to our understanding.”

Brain Regions. Specific areas of the brain, such as Broca's area and Wernicke's area, are specialized for language functions. Broca's area is primarily involved in speech production, while Wernicke's area is crucial for language comprehension. Damage to these areas can result in distinct types of aphasia.

Lateralization. For most individuals, language functions are predominantly localized in the left hemisphere of the brain. This lateralization develops throughout childhood, with some evidence suggesting that it is present from a very early age.

Brain Imaging. Modern brain imaging techniques, such as fMRI and PET scans, provide valuable insights into the neural basis of language processing. These techniques allow researchers to observe which areas of the brain are active during different language tasks.

4. Language development follows a predictable course.

“Connectionist modelling suggests ways in which general properties of the learning system can serve the role of innate, language-specific knowledge, and shows how behaviour emerges from the interaction of nature and nurture at all levels.”

Developmental Milestones. Language development follows a predictable sequence of stages, from babbling to single-word utterances to multi-word sentences. While the exact timing may vary, children typically acquire language in a consistent order.

Key stages of language development:

• Babbling: Producing speech-like sounds
• Holophrastic speech: Using single words to convey complex meanings
• Telegraphic speech: Combining words into short, grammatically simplified sentences
• Acquisition of grammatical morphemes: Learning to use word endings to modify meaning

Individual Differences. Despite the predictable course of language development, there are significant individual differences in the rate and style of acquisition. Some children are more expressive, while others are more referential.

5. Bilingualism presents unique cognitive challenges and benefits.

“The study of bilingualism is useful tool for examining other cognitive processes.”

Simultaneous and Sequential Acquisition. Bilingualism can arise from simultaneous exposure to two languages from birth or from sequential acquisition, where a second language is learned later in childhood or adulthood. Each path presents unique challenges and benefits.

Cognitive Effects. Bilingualism has been shown to enhance metalinguistic awareness and cognitive flexibility. However, it may also result in slight deficits in cognitive processing and working memory for tasks performed in the second language.

Lexical Representation. Bilingual speakers may have separate lexicons for each language or a common store with interconnected representations. The way in which languages are stored and accessed can influence translation processes.

6. Visual word recognition involves multiple processes.

“The goal of sentence interpretation is to assign thematic roles to words in the sentence being processed—who is doing what to whom.”

Lexical Access. Recognizing a visual word involves accessing its representation in the mental lexicon, a process influenced by factors such as word frequency, familiarity, and context. This process is mandatory and largely automatic.

Methods of Study. Psycholinguists use various methods to study visual word recognition, including eye-tracking, naming tasks, lexical decision tasks, and tachistoscopic identification. Each method provides unique insights into the underlying processes.

Semantic Priming. Semantic priming, where the recognition of a word is facilitated by prior exposure to a semantically related word, is a robust effect in visual word recognition. This effect can be influenced by both automatic and attentional processes.

7. Reading relies on both lexical and sublexical routes.

“The processes of speech production fall into three broad areas called conceptualization, formulation, and encoding.”

Dual-Route Model. The dual-route model of reading proposes that we access the sounds and meanings of words through two distinct routes: a lexical route for familiar words and a sublexical route for unfamiliar words and nonwords. This model accounts for the ability to read both regular and irregular words.

Acquired Dyslexia. Studies of acquired dyslexia, where brain damage disrupts reading abilities, provide evidence for the dual-route model. Different types of dyslexia, such as surface dyslexia and phonological dyslexia, selectively impair the lexical and sublexical routes, respectively.

Connectionist Models. Connectionist models offer an alternative account of reading, where a single mechanism learns to associate spellings with pronunciations through statistical regularities in the language. These models can simulate some aspects of dyslexia.

8. Speech perception is influenced by context and experience.

“The social setting can serve the same role as innate principles in enabling the child to determine the reference without knowing the language.”

Segmentation and Invariance. Recognizing speech involves overcoming the challenges of segmentation, where sounds slur together, and invariance, where the same phoneme can sound different depending on the context. Listeners use various strategies to segment speech, including stress-based segmentation and syllable-based segmentation.

Categorical Perception. Listeners categorize speech sounds into distinct phonemes, a phenomenon known as categorical perception. However, the boundaries between categories are not fixed and can be influenced by context and experience.

Contextual Effects. Context plays a crucial role in speech perception. Lexical context, sentential context, and even non-linguistic context can influence how we identify and interpret sounds.

9. Syntactic processing involves incremental analysis and ambiguity resolution.

“The goal of sentence interpretation is to assign thematic roles to words in the sentence being processed—who is doing what to whom.”

Incremental Parsing. Syntactic processing is largely an incremental process, where we try to build structures on a word-by-word basis. This rapid analysis allows us to understand sentences as they unfold.

Ambiguity Resolution. Syntactic ambiguity, where a sentence can have more than one possible structure, poses a challenge for the parser. Models of parsing differ in how they resolve ambiguity, with some emphasizing syntactic preferences and others emphasizing semantic factors.

Garden Path Model. The garden path model proposes that we initially construct only one syntactic structure based on principles such as minimal attachment and late closure. If this structure turns out to be incorrect, we must reanalyze the sentence.

10. Semantic memory is organized by features and categories.

“The more we know about a topic, the better we can comprehend and recall new material.”

Semantic Networks. Semantic memory, our store of general knowledge, is organized by features and categories. Semantic networks represent word meanings as nodes connected by links that specify relationships between concepts.

Semantic Features. Semantic features are smaller units of meaning that combine to form the meanings of words. Decompositional theories propose that word meanings can be broken down into these features.

Prototypes. Prototypes are average members of a category that serve as reference points for categorization. Prototype theories propose that we classify objects based on their similarity to prototypes.

11. Comprehension involves inference and integration.

“We assume that what we are processing is coherent and makes sense.”

Inference Making. Comprehension involves making inferences, or drawing additional knowledge from facts already known. Inferences help us relate new information to previous information and maintain coherence.

Types of Inferences:

• Logical inferences: Follow from the meanings of words
• Bridging inferences: Connect new information to previous information
• Elaborative inferences: Extend what is in the text with world knowledge

Memory and Comprehension. We tend to remember the gist of what we read or hear, not the detailed form. Prior knowledge and context influence our ability to understand and remember language.

12. Language production is a complex process of planning and execution.

“The processes of speech production fall into three broad areas called conceptualization, formulation, and encoding.”

Conceptualization, Formulation, and Encoding. Language production involves three broad stages: conceptualization (determining what to say), formulation (translating thoughts into linguistic form), and encoding (turning words into sounds).

Two-Stage Lexicalization. Lexicalization, the process of retrieving words, is thought to occur in two stages: lemma selection (selecting the abstract lexical unit) and lexeme selection (retrieving the phonological form).

Speech Errors. Speech errors, or slips of the tongue, provide valuable insights into the processes of language production. Analyzing these errors reveals the units and mechanisms involved in speech planning and execution.

Last updated: March 10, 2025