The Rhetoric & The Poetics of Aristotle

1. Rhetoric is the counterpart of Dialectic, accessible to all.

RHETORIC the counterpart of Dialectic. Both alike are concerned with such things as come, more or less, within the general ken of all men and belong to no definite science.

Universal accessibility. Rhetoric, like dialectic, isn't confined to a specific field of expertise; it's a tool available to everyone. This accessibility stems from its focus on common knowledge and everyday reasoning, making it a fundamental skill for communication and argumentation.

Systematic handling. While many engage in rhetoric instinctively, Aristotle argues for a systematic approach. By understanding the principles behind effective speaking, individuals can enhance their ability to persuade, defend, and attack arguments with greater precision and impact.

Art of inquiry. The ability to inquire into why some speakers succeed through practice and others spontaneously is the function of an art. This art can be learned and improved upon through systematic study, transforming rhetoric from a mere talent into a cultivated skill.

2. Persuasion hinges on the speaker's character, the audience's emotions, and the speech's proof.

Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. The first kind depends on the personal character of the speaker; the second on putting the audience into a certain frame of mind; the third on the proof, or apparent proof, provided by the words of the speech itself.

Ethos, pathos, and logos. Aristotle identifies three essential components of persuasion: ethos (the speaker's credibility), pathos (the audience's emotions), and logos (the logical arguments presented). A successful orator must master all three to effectively influence their audience.

Character matters. The speaker's character is paramount, as credibility significantly impacts the audience's receptiveness. A credible speaker is perceived as trustworthy and knowledgeable, making their arguments more persuasive.

Emotional connection. Understanding and appealing to the audience's emotions is crucial. Stirring emotions like pity, anger, or joy can sway judgment and make the audience more receptive to the speaker's message.

3. Oratory divides into political, forensic, and ceremonial, each with distinct aims.

Rhetoric falls into three divisions, determined by the three classes of listeners to speeches. For of the three elements in speech-making—speaker, subject, and person addressed—it is the last one, the hearer, that determines the speech’s end and object.

Three branches of rhetoric. Aristotle categorizes oratory into three distinct types: political (deliberative), forensic (judicial), and ceremonial (epideictic). Each type serves a different purpose and is tailored to a specific audience.

Political oratory. Political oratory aims to influence future actions, urging the audience to adopt or reject a proposed course. It focuses on expediency and harm, considering whether a policy will be beneficial or detrimental to the state.

Forensic oratory. Forensic oratory deals with past events, either accusing or defending someone in a legal setting. Its primary goal is to establish justice or injustice, determining whether an action was right or wrong.

Ceremonial oratory. Ceremonial oratory focuses on the present, praising or censuring individuals to demonstrate worthiness of honor or the opposite. It often involves recalling the past and speculating about the future to enhance the impact of the present assessment.

4. Political oratory centers on future expediency, demanding knowledge of state affairs.

The political orator aims at establishing the expediency or the harmfulness of a proposed course of action; if he urges its acceptance, he does so on the ground that it will do good; if he urges its rejection, he does so on the ground that it will do harm; and all other points, such as whether the proposal is just or unjust, honourable or dishonourable, he brings in as subsidiary and relative to this main consideration.

Focus on utility. Political oratory is primarily concerned with the future and the practical consequences of proposed actions. The central question is whether a course of action will be expedient or harmful to the state.

Essential knowledge. Effective political speakers must possess a deep understanding of their country's resources, military strength, trade relations, and legal systems. This knowledge enables them to offer informed counsel on matters of state.

Key areas of deliberation:

• Ways and means (financial management)
• War and peace (military strategy)
• National defense (security measures)
• Imports and exports (trade policies)
• Legislation (lawmaking)

5. Happiness, the ultimate aim, comprises virtue, independence, and secure pleasure.

It may be said that every individual man and all men in common aim at a certain end which determines what they choose and what they avoid. This end, to sum it up briefly, is happiness and its constituents.

Universal pursuit. Aristotle posits that all human actions are ultimately directed towards achieving happiness. Understanding the components of happiness is essential for effective political oratory, as it informs the speaker's arguments for or against proposed policies.

Constituents of happiness:

• Good birth
• Plenty of friends
• Good friends
• Wealth
• Good children
• Plenty of children
• A happy old age
• Bodily excellences (health, beauty, strength)
• Fame
• Honor
• Good luck
• Virtue

Achieving independence. True independence requires both internal and external goods, including resources and good fortune. These elements provide security and enable individuals to live fulfilling lives.

6. Virtue, the essence of nobility, encompasses justice, courage, temperance, and more.

The Noble is that which is both desirable for its own sake and also worthy of praise; or that which is both good and also pleasant because good. If this is a true definition of the Noble, it follows that virtue must be noble, since it is both a good thing and also praiseworthy.

Virtue as beneficence. Virtue is defined as the capacity to provide and preserve good things, conferring benefits on others. The most valuable virtues are those that are most useful to society.

Forms of virtue:

• Justice: Upholding the law and ensuring fairness
• Courage: Acting nobly in dangerous situations
• Temperance: Exercising self-control over physical pleasures
• Liberality: Spending money for the good of others
• Magnanimity: Doing good on a large scale
• Magnificence: Achieving greatness in matters involving money
• Prudence: Making wise decisions related to happiness

Noble actions. Actions that are rewarded with honor, aimed at the good of others, or beneficial after death are considered noble. These actions reflect a selfless commitment to the well-being of society.

7. Understanding government forms is crucial for effective political persuasion.

The most important and effective qualification for success in persuading audiences and speaking well on public affairs is to understand all the forms of government and to discriminate their respective customs, institutions, and interests.

Interest and established order. People are persuaded by considerations of their own interest, which is closely tied to the maintenance of the established order. Understanding the values and priorities of different government types is essential for tailoring persuasive arguments.

Forms of government:

• Democracy: Rule by the people, emphasizing freedom
• Oligarchy: Rule by the wealthy, prioritizing wealth
• Aristocracy: Rule by the educated, valuing education and national institutions
• Monarchy: Rule by one, focused on the protection of the ruler

Moral qualities. Each form of government has distinct moral qualities that influence its decisions. Understanding these qualities allows speakers to craft arguments that resonate with the specific values of the ruling power.

8. Wrongdoing stems from vice, lack of control, and the pursuit of pleasure or utility.

We may describe ‘wrongdoing’ as injury voluntarily inflicted contrary to law.

Voluntary injury. Wrongdoing is defined as intentionally inflicting harm in violation of the law. Understanding the motivations behind wrongdoing is essential for both accusation and defense in forensic oratory.

Causes of wrongdoing:

• Vice: Actions corresponding to personal faults (e.g., meanness leading to financial wrongs)
• Lack of self-control: Giving in to irrational cravings and desires
• Pursuit of pleasure: Seeking immediate gratification without regard for consequences
• Pursuit of utility: Believing that the benefits outweigh the potential penalties

Motives and states of mind. Wrongdoers are driven by a desire to gain something or avoid something. They must believe that their actions are possible, that they can escape punishment, or that the benefits outweigh the risks.

9. Pleasure, a key motivator, is the conscious movement to a normal state of being.

We may lay it down that Pleasure is a movement, a movement by which the soul as a whole is consciously brought into its normal state of being; and that Pain is the opposite.

Pleasure as restoration. Pleasure is defined as the process of restoring the soul to its natural state, while pain is the opposite. Understanding the nature of pleasure is crucial for identifying the motivations behind human actions.

Sources of pleasure:

• Natural processes: Recovery from hunger, thirst, or illness
• Habits: Actions that have become second nature
• Freedom from compulsion: Ease, relaxation, and amusement
• Fulfillment of desires: Both rational and irrational cravings

Memory and expectation. Pleasure can be derived not only from present experiences but also from memories of past pleasures and expectations of future ones. This explains why even painful experiences can be pleasant in retrospect.

10. Fear, a pain from impending evil, is countered by confidence in safety and ability.

Fear may be defined as a pain or disturbance due to a mental picture of some destructive or painful evil in the future.

Anticipation of harm. Fear is a painful emotion caused by the anticipation of destructive or painful events. It is triggered by the perception of imminent danger and the belief that one is vulnerable to harm.

Sources of fear:

• Enmity and anger of powerful individuals
• Injustice in possession of power
• Outraged virtue in possession of power
• Fear felt by those who have power
• Being at another's mercy

Building confidence. Confidence, the opposite of fear, arises from the expectation of safety and the absence of danger. It is fostered by the ability to take action, a lack of past wrongs, and a belief in one's own strength and resources.

11. Virtue is a faculty of beneficence, most honored in justice and courage.

If virtue is a faculty of beneficence, the highest kinds of it must be those which are most useful to others, and for this reason men honour most the just and the courageous, since courage is useful to others in war, justice both in war and in peace.

Beneficence as virtue's core. Virtue is fundamentally about doing good for others, making the most valuable virtues those that benefit society as a whole. Justice and courage are particularly esteemed because of their broad applicability and impact.

Justice and courage:

• Justice ensures that everyone enjoys their possessions according to the law.
• Courage enables individuals to act nobly in dangerous situations.

Other virtues:

• Liberality: Spending money for the good of others
• Magnanimity: Doing good on a large scale
• Temperance: Obeying the law where physical pleasures are concerned

Noble actions. Actions that are rewarded with honor, aimed at the good of others, or beneficial after death are considered noble. These actions reflect a selfless commitment to the well-being of society.

12. Persuasion relies on both logical demonstration and ethical appeal.

But since rhetoric exists to affect the giving of decisions-the hearers decide between one political speaker and another, and a legal verdict is a decision-the orator must not only try to make the argument of his speech demonstrative and worthy of belief; he must also make his own character look right and put his hearers, who are to decide, into the right frame of mind.

Beyond mere facts. Effective rhetoric requires more than just presenting logical arguments; it also involves establishing the speaker's credibility and appealing to the audience's emotions. These elements work together to create a persuasive message.

Importance of character. The speaker's character is crucial, especially in political oratory. A speaker who is perceived as sensible, morally good, and well-intentioned is more likely to be trusted and believed.

Emotional connection. Putting the audience in the right frame of mind is essential, particularly in legal settings. Emotions like friendliness or hostility can significantly influence their judgment.

Last updated: February 27, 2025