The Shadow of the Great Game

1. British Strategic Interests Drove Partition

Britain was bound to protect its strategic and economic interests from the damaging consequences of its withdrawal from its vast two-century-old Empire in India.

The Great Game Reimagined. The British decision to partition India was significantly influenced by their strategic concerns about the resurgence of the "Great Game" with the USSR after World War II. The British sought to maintain a military connection with the subcontinent to ward off Soviet influence, particularly in the oil-rich Persian Gulf.

Military Imperatives. Post-war assessments by British chiefs of staff emphasized the need to retain military access to the subcontinent, especially the northwest, regardless of political changes. This region was seen as crucial for air power projection and access to manpower.

Partition as a Solution. The British realized that the Indian National Congress, poised to rule after independence, would likely deny them military cooperation. They turned to Mohammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League, who were willing to cooperate on defense matters in exchange for the creation of Pakistan, thus ensuring a strategic partnership in the region.

2. Anglo-Muslim League Alliance Solidified Partition

By resigning the Congress Party showed a lamentable political wisdom.

Congress's Missed Opportunities. The Congress Party's decision to resign from provincial governments in 1939 created a political vacuum that the Muslim League exploited. This abdication reduced the British dependence on the Congress Party and made it less necessary to accommodate their demands.

Jinnah's Strategic Alliance. Jinnah offered the British the loyalty of the Muslim community in exchange for support for a separate Muslim state. This alliance was solidified by the British promise not to transfer power to any system of government whose authority was directly denied by large and powerful elements in India's national life, effectively granting Jinnah a veto over constitutional developments.

Building Up Jinnah. The British actively built up Jinnah as the sole spokesman of the Muslims of India, even though he did not represent all Muslims. This was done to counter the Congress Party and ensure that British strategic interests were safeguarded after independence.

3. Jinnah's Pakistan Scheme: Ambition and Ambiguity

The Muslims are a separate nation according to any definition of a nation and they must have their own homelands, their territory and their states.

The Two-Nation Theory. Jinnah's proclamation of the two-nation theory in 1940, asserting that Muslims were a separate nation and required their own homeland, marked a turning point. This demand for a sovereign Muslim state was unprecedented and controversial.

Contradictions and Criticisms. Jinnah's scheme faced criticism from various quarters:

• It excluded millions of Muslims living in minority provinces.
• It was opposed by Muslim fundamentalist groups.
• It was seen as unnecessarily defeatist by many Muslims.

Exploiting Ambiguity. Jinnah strategically kept the parameters of his Pakistan scheme obscure and fluid, fostering ambiguity about its future boundaries. This tactic helped him maintain support from Muslims in minority provinces and prevent internal revolt.

4. Roosevelt's Pressure and Churchill's Resistance

Churchill hates India and everything to do with it.

American Influence. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt exerted pressure on Prime Minister Winston Churchill to grant India self-government, aiming to establish a post-colonial order in Asia. Roosevelt's interest was driven by the need to enlist Indian support against Japan and to evolve a post-war order free from European colonialism.

Churchill's Defiance. Churchill, deeply opposed to Indian independence, resisted American pressure by playing the "Muslim card," emphasizing Hindu-Muslim differences as the real obstacle to self-determination. He used this to deflect American criticism of Britain's unwillingness to grant freedom.

The Cripps Mission. To appease American pressure and address the Indian situation, Churchill sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India with an offer of dominion status after the war. However, the offer included the "provincial option," allowing provinces to opt out of the Indian Union, effectively paving the way for partition.

5. Gandhi's Conflicting Ideals and the "Quit India" Movement

If we [the British] could make up our minds to buy Congress we should buy the finest propaganda machine in the East.

Gandhiji's Dilemma. Mahatma Gandhi, initially sympathetic to the British war effort, struggled to reconcile his commitment to non-violence with the need to oppose British rule. His advocacy of non-violent resistance against Hitler and his "Quit India" movement created further misunderstandings with the British.

Individual Peaceful Disobedience. Gandhiji launched the "Individual Peaceful Disobedience" movement, a symbolic protest against British rule. While this movement caused little disruption to the war effort, it further strained relations between the Congress Party and the British.

Consequences for Jinnah. The Congress Party's opposition to the war effort and the Muslim League's de facto support for it convinced the British that Hindus were their enemies and Muslims their friends. This consideration added force to the official support for the policy of partition.

6. Wavell's Blueprint for a Partitioned Subcontinent

He [Jinnah] represents a minority and a minority that can only hold its own with our assistance.

A Viceroy's Vision. Lord Wavell, recognizing Britain's declining power and the unlikelihood of Congress cooperation, developed a plan to safeguard British strategic interests by partitioning India. He envisioned a smaller Pakistan, willing to cooperate with Britain on military matters, as a key partner in the region.

Building Up Jinnah. Wavell actively worked to build up Jinnah and the Muslim League, providing them with political support and opportunities to strengthen their position. This strategy aimed to create a counterweight to the Congress Party and ensure British influence in the subcontinent after independence.

The Indus Valley. The Indus Valley, western Punjab, and Baluchistan were vital to any strategic plans for the defense of the Muslim belt and the oil supplies of the Middle East. Pakistan was the keystone of the strategic arch of the wide and vulnerable waters of the Indian Ocean.

7. Attlee's Labour Government and the Inevitable Retreat

I cannot believe that any government or Parliament in this country would admit to impose by force upon, for example, 80 million Muslim subjects of His Majesty in India a form of constitution under which they would not live peacefully and contentedly.

Shifting British Policy. The British Labour Party Government, under Clement Attlee, closed ranks on the policy to partition India to ensure the defense of Britain's vital interests after the war. This decision was influenced by the recognition that the Congress Party would not cooperate on military matters.

The Indus Valley. The Indus Valley, western Punjab, and Baluchistan were vital to any strategic plans for the defense of the Muslim belt and the oil supplies of the Middle East. Pakistan was the keystone of the strategic arch of the wide and vulnerable waters of the Indian Ocean.

The Indus Valley. The Indus Valley, western Punjab, and Baluchistan were vital to any strategic plans for the defense of the Muslim belt and the oil supplies of the Middle East. Pakistan was the keystone of the strategic arch of the wide and vulnerable waters of the Indian Ocean.

8. Mountbatten's Role: Charm, Speed, and a Divided Legacy

We [British] do not think that logic and clear-cut principles are necessarily the sole key to what ought to be done in swiftly changing and indefinable situations.

A New Viceroy. Lord Louis Mountbatten, appointed viceroy in 1947, was tasked with overseeing the British withdrawal from India. He brought a sense of urgency and a determination to transfer power quickly, but also a commitment to safeguarding British interests.

Persuasion and Pressure. Mountbatten used his charm and negotiating skills to persuade Indian leaders to accept partition and dominion status. He also exerted pressure on the princely states to accede to either India or Pakistan, preventing their fragmentation.

A Divided Legacy. While Mountbatten is credited with expediting India's independence, he is also criticized for his role in the partition, which resulted in widespread violence and displacement. His legacy remains complex and controversial.

9. The Kashmir Imbroglio: Seeds of Conflict Sown

The strategic movements of the Allies in Iraq and Persia in the Second World War were made possible from the Indian base…. The importance of the Gulf grows greater, not less, as the need for fuel expands, the world contracts and the shadows lengthen from the north.

Strategic Importance of Kashmir. The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, bordering Afghanistan and Sinkiang, held significant strategic importance for both India and Pakistan. The British sought to ensure that the region remained under their influence, either directly or through Pakistan.

Conflicting Claims. Both India and Pakistan laid claim to Kashmir, leading to a protracted conflict that continues to this day. The Maharaja of Kashmir's indecision and the subsequent tribal invasion by Pakistan further complicated the situation.

The Gilgit Coup. The British officers of the Gilgit Scouts, a military force stationed in the Northern Areas of Kashmir, orchestrated a coup that transferred control of the region to Pakistan. This move secured a strategic foothold for Pakistan in the region.

10. The UN Intervention: A Protracted Stalemate

The less the Afghans see us, less they will dislike us.

The UN's Role. India's decision to refer the Kashmir dispute to the United Nations led to a protracted stalemate. The UN's involvement failed to resolve the issue, and the region remains divided between India and Pakistan.

British Influence at the UN. The British delegation at the UN played a significant role in shaping the international response to the Kashmir dispute. They often sided with Pakistan, reflecting their strategic interests in the region.

A Lingering Conflict. The Kashmir dispute continues to be a major source of tension between India and Pakistan. The region remains heavily militarized, and the prospects for a peaceful resolution remain uncertain.

Last updated: March 1, 2025