War and the Iliad

1. Force is the true protagonist of the Iliad, reducing human beings to mere things.

To define force—it is that x that turns anybody who is subjected to it into a thing.

The dehumanizing mechanism. Simone Weil argues that the true hero of the Iliad is not Achilles or Hector, but force itself. This relentless power operates like a machine, stripping individuals of their humanity and transforming them into literal or figurative objects.

Two forms of petrification. Force manifests in two distinct ways: it either kills instantly, turning a living person into a corpse, or it compromises their soul while they are still alive. Under its shadow, the living are reduced to a state of psychological paralysis, behaving like inert matter.

• The literal corpse dragged in the dust behind a chariot.
• The suppliant who freezes, unable to even tremble before his executioner.
• The slave whose inner life is entirely erased by the master's will.

A world without comfort. The Iliad presents this grim reality without any comforting illusions of immortality or patriotic glory. By stripping away these romantic veils, the epic mirrors the harsh truth of human history, showing that most of life takes place far from the warmth of peace.

2. The illusion of possessing force intoxicates the strong and triggers an automatic retribution.

Force is as pitiless to the man who possesses it, or thinks he does, as it is to its victims; the second it crushes, the first it intoxicates.

The trap of intoxication. Those who wield power falsely believe they own it permanently, leading them to act with reckless cruelty. This lack of restraint prevents reflection, blinding the strong to the reality that their dominance is merely temporary.

The law of Nemesis. The universe operates on a geometrical law of retribution, where the abuse of force automatically triggers its own destruction. This principle of equilibrium, known as Nemesis, ensures that the executioner eventually becomes the victim.

• Agamemnon humbles Achilles, only to weep in despair days later.
• Hector triumphs over Patroclus, ignoring warnings of his own imminent doom.
• Achilles rejoices in the Greek rout, unaware it will cause his best friend's death.

The loss of measure. Western civilization has largely lost this ancient Greek understanding of limit and measure, treating power as an infinite resource. By ignoring these boundaries, modern societies repeat the tragic errors of the epic heroes, committing themselves to self-destruction.

3. The Iliad's absolute impartiality reflects a profound, sorrowful equity toward all human suffering.

Never does the tone lose its coloring of bitterness; yet never does the bitterness drop into lamentation.

Impartiality as sunlight. The Iliad is unique in its refusal to take sides, treating both Greeks and Trojans with equal compassion and respect. The poet views the battlefield with a detached yet deeply tender eye, recognizing that all combatants are brothers in the same distress.

A shared human condition. By refusing to elevate the victors or scorn the vanquished, the epic establishes a profound moral equity. This perspective suggests the poem may have been composed by a conquered people who saw their own misery reflected in both sides of the conflict.

• The tragic fate of the young Trojan boy sold into slavery.
• The sorrow of the Greek soldiers dying far from their native land.
• The shared grief of Priam and Achilles as they weep together.

The source of justice. This sense of human misery is the essential precondition for genuine love and justice. Only by measuring the true dominion of force can we learn to regard our enemies as fellow creatures and escape the illusions of moral superiority.

4. Hector represents the noble resistance-hero and the guardian of life's perishable joys.

Apollo's protégé, Ilion's protector, defender of a city, a wife, a child, Hector is the guardian of the perishable joys.

The champion of home. Rachel Bespaloff contrasts Achilles' destructive rage with Hector's noble defense of his homeland, family, and culture. Hector is not a demigod or a superman, but a deeply human prince who fights to preserve the fragile blessings of peace.

The burden of sacrifice. Unlike his adversary, Hector is acutely aware of the heavy price of war and the likelihood of his own defeat. His courage is not born of blind anger, but of a conscious decision to stand against destiny for the sake of those he loves.

• His tender farewell to his wife Andromache and his infant son.
• His momentary hesitation and terror before the walls of Troy.
• His ultimate resolution to face Achilles and accept his fate.

The resistance-hero. Hector's struggle defines the very essence of resistance, where the act of standing against an overwhelming force becomes a victory in itself. Even in death, his commitment to human dignity elevates him above the brutal mechanics of conquest.

5. Achilles embodies the tragic limits of pure force and the self-destructive pursuit of vital energy.

Through cruelty force confesses its powerlessness to achieve omnipotence.

The engine of destruction. Achilles represents force in its purest, most volatile form—a vital energy that drives him to seek glory at the cost of his own life. His actions are fueled by a deep-seated resentment and an insatiable hunger for absolute control.

The limits of power. Despite his near-divine strength, Achilles is ultimately powerless to achieve the omnipotence he craves. His extreme cruelty toward his enemies is a confession of this limitation, as total destruction cannot erase the defiance of the weak.

• His refusal to fight over a wounded sense of pride and ownership.
• His savage desecration of Hector's corpse around Patroclus' tomb.
• His realization of his own impending death and ultimate isolation.

The double-edged sword. Achilles' vital energy is both a creative and a destructive force, preventing humanity from falling into stagnant boredom while simultaneously threatening to consume it. His dual nature, half-god and half-beast, highlights the tragic discord of the human will to power.

6. Helen represents beauty as an elusive, sovereign force that transcends the chaos of war.

Beauty, captured, remains elusive. It deserts alike those who beget, or contemplate, or desire it.

The prisoner of passion. Helen is depicted not as a superficial temptress, but as a tragic, austere figure who lives in the shadow of her own beauty. She is a captive of the very desires she excites, forced to submit to the whims of Aphrodite while harboring a deep self-loathing.

A destructive divinity. Her beauty acts as a sovereign force akin to fate, bringing ruin to both Greeks and Trojans alike. Yet, this beauty also possesses a sacred, preservative quality that isolates her from the ordinary degradations of war and time.

• Her long white veils symbolizing a state of perpetual penance.
• The silent awe she inspires in the Trojan elders on the ramparts.
• Her profound isolation in a hostile city where she has no true friends.

The transcendent ideal. Helen represents the world of Being, a timeless ideal that remains untouched by the fleeting, destructive nature of human action. Nations continue to fight for her because beauty is the ultimate prize that promises to transcend mortality.

7. The irresponsibility of the gods highlights the tragic gravity and moral weight of mortal existence.

The gods of the Iliad and the worldlings of War and Peace have that want of seriousness... that for Homer, as for Tolstoy, is the distinguishing mark of the subhuman...

The divine comedy. The gods of Olympus provide a sharp, comic contrast to the intense suffering of the mortal heroes. Exempt from death and pain, they treat the Trojan War as a theatrical spectacle, engaging in petty squabbles and irresponsible intrigues.

The burden of mortality. Because the gods risk nothing, their existence lacks the moral gravity and nobility that define human life. It is the very certainty of death that gives mortal choices their profound weight and makes human courage truly divine.

• Zeus watching the carnage from Mount Ida for his own amusement.
• Hera using seduction and deception to manipulate the course of battle.
• Ares being knocked to the ground like a petulant child by Athena.

The silent watcher. Zeus represents a detached, cosmic spectator who registers the weight of fate on his golden scales without intervening to save the good. This indifferent distribution of destiny forces humans to find their own meaning and justice within a chaotic universe.

8. The shared ethical landscape of the Iliad and the Bible rejects abstract dogma for raw human truth.

Both the Bible and the Iliad link ethical experience and metaphysical questioning very closely.

A common humanity. Rachel Bespaloff identifies a deep, underlying connection between the worldview of the Greek epic and the Hebrew Bible. Both texts reject magical formulas and abstract philosophical systems, focusing instead on the raw, lived experience of human suffering and struggle.

The acceptance of limits. Both traditions are rooted in a radical disenchantment with human power, demanding an ultimate humility before the reality of existence. Whether facing the blind decrees of Fate or the inscrutable will of God, the individual must find a way to preserve their dignity.

• Job's stubborn arguments and ultimate silence before the Almighty.
• Priam's quiet dignity as he kisses the hands of his son's murderer.
• The prophetic call to establish justice on the native soil.

The power of poetry. To communicate these profound ethical truths, both the Bible and the Iliad rely on the transformative power of poetry rather than moral dogma. Through song and story, they rescue human suffering from the oblivion of history, offering a timeless witness to our shared struggles.

9. The "style of old age" in literature seeks essential, mythical structures to survive historical disintegration.

Both myth and the 'style of old age' become abbreviations of the world-content by presenting its structure, and this in its very essence.

The search for essence. In his afterword, Hermann Broch describes the "style of old age" as a radical shift toward abstraction and simplification. When an artist reaches this stage, they abandon conventional, decorative vocabulary to focus entirely on the essential, mathematical structure of the universe.

A return to myth. This abstract style naturally aligns with the structure of myth, which serves as the original model of human cognition. In times of historical crisis and the disintegration of values, great writers instinctively return to myth to find a stable framework for reality.

• Homer transitioning from the complex Cretan culture to the stark geometry of the epic.
• Tolstoy abandoning his novelistic style to construct a radical, ethical universe.
• Modern artists like Joyce and Kafka using myth to navigate the anarchy of the twentieth century.

The triumph over chaos. The style of old age is not a sign of decline, but a supreme conquest of form over chaos. By reducing the world to its core symbols, the artist creates a timeless monument that defies the destructive flow of history and restores a sense of unity to human existence.

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