Peasants Into Frenchmen

1. Rural France: A "Country of Savages" Untouched by Modernity.

"You DON'T NEED to go to America to see savages," mused a Parisian as he strolled through the Burgundian countryside of the 1840's. "Here are the Redskins of Fenimore Cooper."

Profound Disconnect. Nineteenth-century urban observers often viewed vast swathes of rural France as primitive and uncivilized, akin to foreign lands. This perception stemmed from the stark differences in material conditions, language, and social customs between city and countryside. Peasants were labeled "savages" or "barbarians," reflecting a profound cultural and intellectual chasm.

Isolation and Ignorance. Many rural populations lived in extreme isolation, particularly south of the Loire. Regions like the Pyrenean valleys, Morvan, and Landes were described as wild landscapes inhabited by people who spoke unintelligible dialects, lacked basic amenities, and were ignorant of the outside world. This isolation fostered unique mentalities and a deep mistrust of outsiders, who were often seen as agents of an alien, urban civilization.

A Different Civilization. The prevailing urban view was that peasants lacked "civilization," meaning they were unintegrated into French national culture. This implied a need to teach them manners, morals, literacy, and the French language, along with a sense of national identity. The goal was to assimilate this "undeveloped France" into the modern world and the official culture of Paris, transforming them from "rough and incomplete drafts of the truly civilized man."

2. The Enduring Power of "Mad Beliefs" and Local Lore.

"For the least little reason, the peasant thought a spell had been cast on his cattle or his field. He bought talismans and wore them around his neck like a scapulary, ... medallions, magic rings, ... a piece of hangman's rope, ... saw the devil's hand in anything out of the way and ran to a sorcerer."

Supernatural Intertwined with Life. Despite official condemnation, a rich tapestry of "mad beliefs" persisted in rural France well into the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Peasants lived in a world where the supernatural was an active, everyday force, influencing everything from crop yields to personal health. This included widespread belief in:

• Witches and sorcerers, often possessing "grimoires"
• Ghosts, werewolves, and local spirits
• Efficacy of charms, talismans, and incantations

Sorcerers and Priests. Sorcerers held significant sway, their powers both feared and sought after. Priests, too, were often seen through a magical lens, believed to command powers over weather, illness, and evil spirits. Their blessings were sought for crops and animals, and their vestments were thought to possess healing properties, blurring the lines between Christian doctrine and ancient pagan practices.

Impotence and Defense. These beliefs were not mere ignorance but a "strategy of impotence" in a world where natural forces were largely uncontrollable. Magic offered a sense of agency and protection against unpredictable calamities like droughts, disease, and wild animals. As modern science and infrastructure slowly provided more tangible solutions, these traditional forms of defense gradually waned, but their deep roots in the peasant mentality meant a slow and selective decline, especially in matters of birth, marriage, and death.

3. Archaic Economy: Kings' Feet, Pistoles, and Subsistence.

"The law of 7 Germinal, year II of the Republic (March 28, 1803) was a crucial act, creating the stable currency on which the French economy and French savings throve for the next 120 years. But the franc it created had to compete with earlier currencies almost to the time of its first devaluation in the 1920's."

Resistance to Standardization. The French Revolution introduced the metric system and the franc, but these modern standards were slow to penetrate rural life. For generations, peasants clung to traditional weights, measures, and currencies, often based on local experience or familiar objects. Examples include:

• Land measured by "journal" (day's work) or "hommee" (man's work)
• Currency in "pistoles" (five-franc silver pieces) or "ecus" (three-franc pieces)
• Measures like "ell" and "boisseau" varying by locality

Scarcity of Cash. Money itself was a rare and unfamiliar commodity in many rural areas. Transactions were often conducted through barter or in kind, with cash reserved for taxes or land acquisition. This scarcity fostered extreme thriftiness, often misinterpreted as avarice by urban observers. The lack of formal credit institutions meant widespread usury, trapping many peasant families in generations of debt.

Subsistence Economy. The primary goal of agricultural labor was to feed the family, not to generate profit for a broader market. Meat was a luxury, bread often coarse and baked infrequently, and human and animal foods were interchangeable in times of scarcity. This subsistence mentality, coupled with limited transportation, meant that local economies remained largely self-sufficient, resisting integration into the national economic system until much later in the 19th century.

4. Deep-Seated Localism: Suspicion of Strangers and Distrust of State.

"The least of our villages," wrote a local historian of the Var, "considers itself a pays in its language, legends, customs, ways."

The Primacy of the 'Pays'. For most rural Frenchmen, their "pays" – their local region, village, or even hamlet – was their primary identity and "fatherland." This intense localism fostered strong internal solidarities but also deep suspicion and hostility towards anyone from outside the familiar radius. Strangers, even from neighboring villages, were often met with distrust, seen as potential threats or objects of ridicule.

Fear of the "Cornered Hats." The state, embodied by gendarmes, tax collectors, and bailiffs, was largely perceived as an alien, oppressive force. Peasants often included "justice" in their evening prayers for deliverance from evil, reflecting a profound distrust of external legal and administrative systems. This animosity was fueled by devastating intrusions into local life, such as:

• Forest codes restricting traditional wood-gathering and grazing rights
• Imposition of unpopular taxes
• Interference with local customs and practices

Archaic Conflicts. This localism manifested in persistent inter-village feuds, often over resources like land or pasture rights, and in collective violence against perceived outsiders or those who violated local norms. These conflicts, sometimes escalating into "real battles," were rooted in ancient enmities and reinforced by isolation. Even political upheavals like the 1848 Revolution were often interpreted through a local lens, becoming opportunities to settle old scores against local "bourgeois" or reclaim traditional privileges.

5. Infrastructure as a Catalyst: Roads, Rails, and the End of Isolation.

"Roads, more roads and always roads," wrote the prefect of Loiret in September 1867, "this sums up the political economy of the countryside."

Breaking Down Barriers. The expansion of roads and railways was the most fundamental force in dismantling rural isolation. For centuries, vast areas of France were inaccessible, with rudimentary tracks barely passable by foot or mule. This limited trade, communication, and the spread of new ideas, keeping communities self-contained and resistant to external influence.

Economic Transformation. Improved infrastructure dramatically reduced transport costs, making it profitable to export agricultural products and import manufactured goods and fertilizers. This shifted local economies from subsistence to market-oriented production, leading to specialization in crops like wine or cattle. Regions once plagued by poverty and famine, like the Segala plateau, were transformed into prosperous areas, demonstrating the direct link between connectivity and economic well-being.

Cultural Diffusion. Beyond economic impact, roads and rails facilitated the flow of people and ideas. Migrants, soldiers, and even tourists became conduits for urban culture, introducing new tastes in food, clothing, and entertainment. The "Freycinet Plan" of the 1870s, a massive investment in local rail lines and roads, was a pivotal moment, not only stimulating the economy but also integrating previously disconnected regions into a shared national experience, both materially and culturally.

6. The Army: A School for Frenchmen and a Path to Urban Life.

"The young Bretons who don't know how to read, write, or speak French when they get to their units are promptly civilized [degrossis], ... lose the prejudices of their pays, abandon native suspicions and backward opinions; and when they return to the village, they are sufficiently Frenchified to Frenchify their friends by their influence."

Forced Integration. For much of the 19th century, military conscription was deeply unpopular in rural France, seen as a harsh tax on labor and a forced separation from home. Draft evasion and self-mutilation were common, reflecting a profound antipathy towards an alien state demanding service. The army was viewed as "theirs," not "ours," and soldiers were often treated with suspicion even in their own communities.

A New Identity. The introduction of universal military service in 1889, reducing the term to three years and making it mandatory for almost all able-bodied men, marked a turning point. Barracks became de facto schools, teaching French, basic literacy, and hygiene. Soldiers from diverse regions were forced to interact, breaking down local prejudices and fostering a nascent sense of national identity.

Gateway to Modernity. Military service exposed young men to urban life, better food, and improved living standards, often far superior to their rural homes. Many chose not to return to their villages, instead seeking jobs in cities or other government branches like the gendarmerie or post office. Returning veterans, "Frenchified" and with new tastes, became agents of change in their communities, subtly undermining traditional ways and encouraging further emigration.

7. Schools: Forging National Language, Literacy, and Patriotism.

"The children [of Lauragais] don't have to learn simply how to read and write," commented M. F. Pariset in 1867. "They have to learn how to do so in French, that is, in another language than the one they know."

Beyond Basic Literacy. Before the Third Republic, rural schools were often rudimentary, poorly equipped, and staffed by underqualified teachers. Instruction was limited, often focusing on rote memorization of catechism in local dialects or a pidgin French. For many children, French was a foreign language, making learning difficult and often ineffective, as evidenced by high illiteracy rates and a lack of comprehension.

The Ferry Laws' Impact. Jules Ferry's reforms in the 1880s made public schooling free and compulsory, backed by massive state investment in new school buildings and teacher training. This systematic effort aimed to eradicate illiteracy and, crucially, to impose the French language. Teachers, now better trained and emancipated from clerical control, became "municipal lampposts," actively promoting French and Republican values.

Cultural Homogenization. Schools became powerful agents of acculturation, teaching a standardized French language, national history, and civics. This instilled a sense of patriotism, emphasizing duty to "France" as a unified entity beyond local "pays." The school certificate became a key to social and economic advancement, encouraging parents to keep children in school longer. This process, though sometimes alienating for those caught between two cultures, profoundly reshaped mentalities and fostered a shared national identity.

8. The Decline of Traditional Religion: From Magic to Modernity.

"The cult of the saints and of the dead is still the outstanding trait of your character."

Utilitarian Faith. For centuries, popular religion in rural France was deeply intertwined with daily life, serving practical, often magical, functions. Saints were invoked for healing, protection, and good harvests, and rituals were performed to control natural phenomena. This was a pragmatic faith, focused on earthly concerns, where the efficacy of a saint or ceremony mattered more than abstract Christian doctrine.

Erosion of Authority. The French Revolution and subsequent political upheavals weakened the Church's institutional power, leading to a decline in compulsory attendance and a rise in nonconformity. Priests, often seen as rapacious and authoritarian, clashed with villagers over fees and moral strictures, particularly regarding dancing and private life. This friction, coupled with the growing influence of secular authorities and urban ideas, gradually eroded the clergy's traditional authority.

Disenchantment and Secularization. As scientific and technological advancements offered more tangible solutions to life's problems (e.g., quinine for fevers, fertilizers for crops), the perceived utility of religious magic diminished. The Church's efforts to "purify" popular practices, often seen as pagan, further alienated the faithful. By the turn of the century, traditional religious rituals were increasingly viewed as "absurd" or mere entertainment, giving way to a more secular worldview and a "disenchantment of the world."

9. The Waning of Communal Life: From Veillees to Individualism.

"The world we have lost" was no loss to those who had lived in it, or so at least the evidence suggests.

Social Hubs of Necessity. Traditional "veillees" – communal evening gatherings in homes or stables – were central to rural social life, especially during long, cold winters. They served practical purposes, saving on heat and light, and facilitating collective labor like spinning or mending. More importantly, they were vital for:

• Courtship and flirtation
• Entertainment (music, dancing, storytelling)
• Informal transmission of oral culture and local wisdom

Competition from Modernity. The rise of modern amenities and social opportunities gradually undermined the necessity of veillees. Improved housing meant families could afford their own heat and light. The spread of shops, cafes, and organized entertainment in bourgs offered alternative social outlets, particularly for the young. Teachers and priests, viewing veillees as sources of "rude language" and "superstitious terrors," actively discouraged them.

Loss of Function and Meaning. As productive functions like spinning declined and new forms of entertainment emerged, veillees lost their practical and cultural relevance. They became smaller, less frequent, and increasingly segregated by age or social class. The oral traditions they sustained withered, replaced by school-taught knowledge and newspaper narratives. By the early 20th century, these once-vital institutions were largely abandoned, remembered by the old as a bygone era of hardship, not nostalgia.

10. Print Culture's Rise: Newspapers, Almanacs, and a Shared Worldview.

"I love a ballad in print, a-life, for then we are sure they are true."

Limited Access, Powerful Impact. For much of the 19th century, access to printed material in rural France was scarce, yet its influence was profound. Books, often sold by itinerant peddlers, were rare and treasured, sometimes seen as magical objects. Almanacs, in particular, served as a primary source of knowledge, offering calendars, practical advice, and a mix of facts and fables, often consulted for their talismanic qualities rather than read for comprehension.

The "Little Press" and Mass Readership. The mid-19th century saw a revolution in printing, making books cheaper and more accessible. However, it was the rise of the "little press" – cheap, sensationalist newspapers like Le Petit Journal – that truly transformed rural reading habits after the 1860s. These papers, with their lurid crime stories, local news, and political commentary, gradually replaced traditional broadsheets and chapbooks, offering a more current and engaging form of information.

Homogenizing Minds. The widespread circulation of newspapers, coupled with increasing literacy from schools, exposed peasants to a national vocabulary and a shared worldview. Local gossip and oral traditions gave way to discussions of national events, scandals, and politics. This new print culture, though often sensationalist, fostered a sense of belonging to a larger "France," shaping collective consciousness and providing a common frame of reference that transcended regional boundaries.

11. The Great Transformation: From "Two Frances" to a Unified Nation.

"The colonist only ends his work of breaking in the native when the latter admits loud and clear the supremacy of the white man's values."

Internal Colonization. The modernization of rural France can be understood as a process of "internal colonization," where the dominant urban culture of Paris systematically imposed its values, language, and institutions on the diverse, often resistant, provincial populations. This involved dismantling local customs, economic structures, and social hierarchies in the name of "progress" and "civilization," often with a condescending view of native ways.

The End of a Dual Society. The "two nations" described by d'Angeville – a developed North and a backward South – gradually converged. Improvements in infrastructure, education, and military service broke down geographical and cultural barriers. This led to a significant reduction in regional disparities in literacy, diet, and life expectancy, particularly after 1880. The peasant, once bound by local routines and a limited worldview, increasingly adopted urban aspirations and a national identity.

Unlamented Loss, Embraced Progress. While folklorists mourned the "death of tradition," for the peasants themselves, the passing of old ways was often a welcome emancipation from misery, insecurity, and drudgery. They embraced new goods, technologies, and social opportunities, recognizing them as pathways to a better life. This shift, driven by a new sense of agency and the perceived benefits of modernity, completed the transformation of a fragmented collection of "pays" into a unified French nation.