The Crusades

1. The Crusades: A Clash of Faith and Power

Nine hundred years ago the Christians of Europe waged a series of holy wars, or crusades, against the Muslim world, battling for dominion of a region sacred to both faiths – the Holy Land.

Religious fervor and territorial ambition. The Crusades were not simply religious wars; they were complex events driven by a mix of religious zeal, political ambition, and economic interests. Both Christians and Muslims believed their faith justified their actions, leading to a prolonged and bloody conflict over the Holy Land.

• The Christian desire to reclaim Jerusalem, a city of profound spiritual significance, was a major catalyst.
• European nobles sought land, wealth, and power in the East, while the papacy aimed to expand its influence.
• Muslim leaders, in turn, sought to defend their territories and reassert their dominance.

A two-sided story. The Crusades are often portrayed as a one-sided conflict, but it is essential to understand the perspectives of both Christians and Muslims. Both sides believed they were fighting for a just cause, and both were capable of great acts of violence and piety.

• The Christian perspective emphasized the need to liberate the Holy Land from Muslim control and protect fellow Christians.
• The Muslim perspective focused on defending their faith and territories from Christian aggression.

A complex legacy. The Crusades had a lasting impact on both the Christian and Muslim worlds, shaping their political, social, and cultural landscapes. The conflict also fostered a complex relationship between the two faiths, marked by periods of conflict and cooperation.

2. The First Crusade: A Tumultuous Beginning

Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade in 1095.

A call to arms. Pope Urban II's sermon at Clermont in 1095 ignited the First Crusade, a massive military expedition to the Holy Land. He appealed to the religious fervor of the Latin West, promising salvation to those who fought for the Christian cause.

• Urban II demonized Muslims, portraying them as barbaric oppressors of Christians.
• He offered a new path to salvation through armed pilgrimage, promising remission of sins to those who participated.
• The call to crusade resonated with a society deeply concerned with sin, salvation, and the afterlife.

A diverse army. The First Crusade attracted a diverse group of participants, from aristocratic knights to poor peasants, all united by a shared religious goal. This army was not a unified force, but rather a collection of smaller contingents, each with its own leader and agenda.

• Leading figures included Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond of Taranto, and Godfrey of Bouillon.
• The "People's Crusade," led by Peter the Hermit, was an early, disorganized wave of the expedition.
• The crusaders were driven by a mixture of religious zeal, personal ambition, and the promise of spiritual reward.

A journey of trials. The First Crusade was a long and arduous journey, marked by hardship, disease, and internal conflict. The crusaders faced numerous challenges, including the siege of Nicaea, the Battle of Dorylaeum, and the siege of Antioch.

• The siege of Antioch was particularly brutal, with both sides engaging in acts of violence and psychological warfare.
• The crusaders' success was due to a combination of military skill, religious fervor, and the disunity of their Muslim opponents.

3. Byzantium's Role: A Complex Alliance

The Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus had already witnessed the disordered collapse of the People’s Crusade, and it usually is argued that he viewed the advent of the main crusade with equal disdain and suspicion.

A request for aid. The Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus sought military assistance from the West to defend his empire against the Seljuk Turks. This request provided the initial impetus for the First Crusade, but the relationship between the Byzantines and the crusaders was complex and often fraught with tension.

• Alexius hoped for a small force of mercenaries, but instead received a massive army of Frankish crusaders.
• The Byzantines viewed the crusaders with suspicion, fearing their unruly nature and their potential for conquest.
• The crusaders, in turn, were often wary of the Greeks, whom they saw as untrustworthy and duplicitous.

A fragile alliance. The alliance between the Byzantines and the crusaders was based on mutual need, but it was never a true partnership. The two sides had different goals and priorities, and their relationship was often strained by mistrust and misunderstanding.

• Alexius sought to use the crusaders to reclaim lost Byzantine territory in Asia Minor.
• The crusaders, however, were primarily focused on reaching Jerusalem and establishing their own states in the Levant.
• The capture of Nicaea was a high point of Greco-Frankish cooperation, but it also revealed the underlying tensions between the two sides.

A legacy of mistrust. The complex relationship between the Byzantines and the crusaders had a lasting impact on the history of the Crusades. The mistrust and animosity that developed between the two sides would contribute to the eventual collapse of the Byzantine Empire and the failure of later crusades.

4. Antioch: A Crucible of Conflict

Once they broke into the city near dawn on 3 June 1098, the First Crusaders carried out an indiscriminate massacre, depicted here in a thirteenth-century manuscript illumination.

A strategic prize. Antioch was a major city in northern Syria, strategically located on the route to the Holy Land. Its capture was essential for the crusaders, but it proved to be a long and arduous undertaking.

• The city was heavily fortified, with a three-mile circuit of towering walls and a formidable citadel.
• The siege of Antioch lasted for eight months, during which the crusaders faced starvation, disease, and constant attacks from the Muslim garrison.
• The city's fall was facilitated by a betrayal from within, but it was followed by a brutal massacre of the Muslim population.

A second siege. The crusaders' victory at Antioch was short-lived. They were soon besieged within the city by a large Muslim army led by Kerbogha of Mosul.

• The second siege of Antioch was a period of intense suffering and desperation for the crusaders.
• The discovery of the Holy Lance, a relic believed to be the spear that pierced Christ's side, was said to have boosted the crusaders' morale.
• The crusaders' victory over Kerbogha was a turning point in the First Crusade, but it also led to a bitter dispute over the city's future.

A new lordship. Bohemond of Taranto, one of the leading crusaders, claimed Antioch for himself, establishing a new Latin principality in the Near East. This act of self-interest further strained relations between the crusaders and the Byzantines.

5. Jerusalem: The Ultimate Prize

In the Middle Ages, just as it is today, Jerusalem was revered as a site of profound spiritual significance by Christians, Muslims and Jews, and the fate of this Holy City was bound inextricably to the history of the crusades.

A sacred city. Jerusalem was the ultimate objective of the First Crusade, a city revered by Christians, Muslims, and Jews alike. Its capture was seen as a fulfillment of prophecy and a triumph for the Christian faith.

• For Christians, Jerusalem was the site of Jesus Christ's death and resurrection.
• For Muslims, it was the third-holiest city, the place from which Muhammad ascended to heaven.
• For Jews, it was the ancient capital of their kingdom and the site of the Temple.

A bloody conquest. The crusaders' assault on Jerusalem was a brutal and bloody affair. After a protracted siege, they broke into the city on 15 July 1099 and carried out a massacre of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants.

• The sack of Jerusalem was a horrific event, marked by indiscriminate violence and looting.
• The crusaders' actions were driven by a mixture of religious zeal, bloodlust, and a desire for revenge.
• The capture of Jerusalem was a deeply symbolic victory for the Christians, but it also created a legacy of bitterness and resentment.

A new kingdom. After the conquest of Jerusalem, the crusaders established a new Latin kingdom, with Godfrey of Bouillon as its first ruler. This kingdom would become the focus of the crusading movement for the next two centuries.

6. Outremer: A Fragile Christian Outpost

The Latin Christians of the kingdom of Jerusalem conquered the city of Tyre – home to one of the Levant’s best harbours – in 1124 with the aid of Venetian sailors (seen here on the right).

A new society. The crusader states, also known as Outremer, were a unique blend of western European and Near Eastern cultures. The Latin settlers interacted with the indigenous populations, including Muslims, Jews, and eastern Christians, creating a complex and often uneasy social environment.

• The Franks established a feudal system of government, but they also adopted some local customs and practices.
• The crusader states were characterized by a mixture of conflict and cooperation between different religious and ethnic groups.
• The Latin settlers built imposing castles and churches, but they also adopted some aspects of Islamic architecture and art.

A struggle for survival. The crusader states were constantly under threat from their Muslim neighbors. They relied on a combination of military strength, diplomacy, and alliances to maintain their precarious hold on the Levant.

• The kingdom of Jerusalem was the most important of the crusader states, but it was also the most vulnerable.
• The principality of Antioch and the counties of Edessa and Tripoli were also important centers of Latin power in the East.
• The crusader states were constantly in need of reinforcements and financial support from the West.

A legacy of conflict. The crusader states were a product of the clash between Christendom and Islam, and their history is marked by violence, conquest, and cultural exchange. They were a fragile and ultimately unsustainable experiment in European colonialism in the Near East.

7. The Rise of Muslim Unity: Zangi and Nur al-Din

The advent of these crusades stirred Islam to action, reawakening dedication to the cause of jihad (holy war).

A call to jihad. The Crusades prompted a resurgence of Islamic fervor and a renewed commitment to jihad, or holy war. Muslim leaders like Zangi and Nur al-Din sought to unite the Islamic world against the Christian invaders.

• Zangi, a Turkish warlord, was the first to achieve a major victory against the crusaders, capturing Edessa in 1144.
• Nur al-Din, Zangi's son, continued his father's work, uniting much of Syria under his rule and promoting the cause of jihad.
• These leaders used religious rhetoric and propaganda to mobilize Muslim support and inspire resistance against the Franks.

A new focus on unity. The rise of Zangi and Nur al-Din marked a shift in the Muslim response to the Crusades. They recognized the need for unity and cooperation among the various Islamic factions in order to effectively challenge the Christian presence in the Levant.

• They sought to overcome the divisions between Sunni and Shi'ite Muslims.
• They promoted the idea of a unified Islamic state, ruled by a strong and just leader.
• They emphasized the importance of defending the Holy Land and reclaiming Jerusalem.

A legacy of resistance. Zangi and Nur al-Din laid the groundwork for the eventual Muslim reconquest of the Holy Land. Their efforts to unite Islam and promote the cause of jihad would inspire later Muslim leaders, including Saladin.

8. Saladin: A Champion of Islam

A late medieval depiction of Saladin, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty and champion of Islam.

A unifying force. Saladin, a Kurdish general, emerged as the most powerful Muslim leader of the crusading era. He united Egypt and Syria under his rule and led the Muslim forces to victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187.

• Saladin was a skilled military commander, a shrewd politician, and a devout Muslim.
• He was known for his chivalry, his generosity, and his respect for his enemies.
• He became a symbol of Islamic resistance against the crusaders and a hero to Muslims throughout the world.

The reconquest of Jerusalem. Saladin's greatest achievement was the reconquest of Jerusalem in 1187. He captured the city after a brief siege, but he treated its Christian inhabitants with relative leniency.

• He allowed them to leave the city with their possessions, and he did not destroy the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
• His actions were in stark contrast to the crusaders' massacre of Muslims and Jews in 1099.
• Saladin's reconquest of Jerusalem was a major blow to the crusader states and a turning point in the history of the Crusades.

A lasting legacy. Saladin's legacy extends far beyond his military achievements. He is remembered as a just and wise ruler, a champion of Islam, and a symbol of Muslim resistance against western aggression.

9. The Third Crusade: A Clash of Titans

The effigy of Richard the Lionheart, king of England (1189–99). During the Third Crusade Richard confronted Saladin’s forces, but proved unable to reconquer Jerusalem.

A response to disaster. The Third Crusade was launched in response to the Muslim reconquest of Jerusalem and the collapse of the Latin kingdom. It was led by three of Europe's most powerful monarchs: Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Philip II Augustus of France, and Richard I of England.

• The Third Crusade was a massive military undertaking, but it was also plagued by internal divisions and strategic miscalculations.
• Frederick Barbarossa died en route to the Holy Land, and his army was largely dispersed.
• Philip Augustus and Richard I arrived in the Levant with their armies, but their rivalry and mistrust undermined the expedition's effectiveness.

A struggle for Acre. The Third Crusade was dominated by the siege of Acre, a major port city on the coast of Palestine. The siege lasted for two years, during which the crusaders faced disease, starvation, and constant attacks from Saladin's forces.

• The capture of Acre was a major victory for the crusaders, but it was also a costly and protracted affair.
• The siege was marked by acts of brutality and treachery on both sides.
• The capture of Acre did not lead to the reconquest of Jerusalem, and the crusaders were forced to negotiate a truce with Saladin.

A clash of titans. The Third Crusade was also a clash between two of the greatest military leaders of the medieval age: Richard the Lionheart and Saladin. They were both skilled warriors and shrewd strategists, and their rivalry became the stuff of legend.

• Richard was known for his courage, his ferocity, and his tactical brilliance.
• Saladin was admired for his chivalry, his generosity, and his unwavering commitment to Islam.
• Despite their differences, the two leaders developed a grudging respect for one another.

10. The Legacy of the Crusades: A Lasting Impact

Today the crusades are all too topical, though mostly, Asbridge observes, for the wrong reasons: interesting as they are, he says, their place is in the past.

A complex legacy. The Crusades had a lasting impact on both the Christian and Muslim worlds, shaping their political, social, and cultural landscapes. The conflict also fostered a complex relationship between the two faiths, marked by periods of conflict and cooperation.

• The Crusades contributed to the development of western European military technology and siege warfare.
• They also stimulated trade and cultural exchange between Europe and the Near East.
• The Crusades had a profound impact on the development of religious identity and the concept of holy war.

A contested history. The Crusades have been subject to widely varying interpretations over the centuries. They have been portrayed as both glorious expressions of Christian chivalry and as brutal acts of religious aggression.

• Some have seen the crusaders as heroes, while others have viewed them as villains.
• The Crusades have been used to justify both colonialism and anti-western sentiment.
• The memory of the Crusades continues to shape the relationship between the West and the Muslim world today.

A call for understanding. The Crusades are a complex and multifaceted historical event that cannot be easily reduced to a simple narrative of good versus evil. To understand their legacy, it is essential to consider the perspectives of all those involved and to recognize the diverse forces that shaped their course.

Last updated: January 23, 2025