The Invention of Russia

1. The fall of the Soviet Union and the rise of Russian media

"Words were nationalized and guarded by the party. Nothing could be printed without its permission."

Media control was central to Soviet power. The Communist Party strictly regulated all forms of media, using it as a tool for propaganda and social control. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, this control began to erode, leading to:

• The emergence of independent media outlets
• A flourishing of diverse viewpoints and critical journalism
• The rise of influential media figures like Vladimir Gusinsky and Boris Berezovsky

However, this newfound media freedom was short-lived. As Russia transitioned to a market economy, media ownership became concentrated in the hands of a few powerful oligarchs, setting the stage for future conflicts between media independence and state control.

2. Perestroika and glasnost: Gorbachev's reforms and their unintended consequences

"Glasnost is the true socialism."

Gorbachev's reforms aimed to revitalize the Soviet system through openness (glasnost) and restructuring (perestroika). These policies had far-reaching effects:

• Loosening of media censorship, allowing for more open discussion of social and political issues
• Exposure of long-hidden truths about Soviet history, particularly Stalin's crimes
• Unintended weakening of the Communist Party's legitimacy and control

While Gorbachev hoped these reforms would strengthen socialism, they ultimately contributed to the Soviet Union's collapse by unleashing forces of nationalism and democratization that the system couldn't contain.

3. The emergence of oligarchs and the birth of Russian capitalism

"The nomenklatura moved forward, testing its way through, step by step—not according to some thought-through plan but by submitting to its deep instinct. It followed the scent of property as a predator follows its prey."

Russia's transition to capitalism was marked by the rapid privatization of state assets, often through dubious means. This process gave rise to a new class of wealthy and powerful individuals known as oligarchs. Key aspects of this transition included:

• The "loans-for-shares" scheme, which transferred valuable state assets to a small group of well-connected businessmen
• The rise of media moguls like Vladimir Gusinsky and Boris Berezovsky, who used their control over television networks to wield political influence
• A growing divide between a small, ultra-wealthy elite and the majority of Russians who struggled with economic hardship

This period laid the foundation for the complex relationship between business, media, and political power that would define Russia in the coming decades.

4. The 1996 presidential election: Media manipulation and Yeltsin's victory

"Yes, we were biased, but we genuinely believed—and still believe—that Yeltsin's victory would save the country and that Zyuganov would throw it back. We were defending ourselves."

The 1996 election marked a turning point in Russian politics and media. Facing a strong challenge from Communist candidate Gennady Zyuganov, Boris Yeltsin's campaign relied heavily on media manipulation to secure victory. Key aspects included:

• Oligarch-controlled media outlets providing overwhelmingly positive coverage of Yeltsin
• The use of sophisticated PR techniques and negative campaigning against Zyuganov
• Blurring of lines between journalism and political advocacy

While Yeltsin's victory prevented a return to communism, it also set a precedent for the use of media as a tool for political manipulation, undermining the independence and credibility of Russian journalism.

5. Putin's ascent to power and the transformation of Russian media

"Image is everything."

Vladimir Putin's rise to the presidency in 2000 marked the beginning of a new era in Russian media. Putin, understanding the power of television from his own political ascent, moved quickly to bring major media outlets under state control. Key developments included:

• The takeover of NTV, Russia's largest independent television network
• The exile or marginalization of media oligarchs like Gusinsky and Berezovsky
• The creation of a media landscape dominated by state-controlled or state-friendly outlets

Putin's approach to media control was more sophisticated than Soviet-era censorship, relying on a combination of legal pressure, economic leverage, and the cultivation of a new generation of compliant media managers.

6. The Kremlin's control over television and the creation of a virtual reality

"News is power. Power is in truth."

State-controlled television became the primary tool for shaping public opinion in Putin's Russia. Key figures like Konstantin Ernst at Channel One and Oleg Dobrodeev at Russia Channel played crucial roles in crafting a narrative that supported the Kremlin's agenda. This approach included:

• Carefully curated news coverage that emphasized stability and Russia's resurgence
• The use of entertainment programming to reinforce patriotic themes
• The creation of a "virtual reality" that often bore little resemblance to actual events

This media strategy was particularly evident in the coverage of events like the Beslan school siege and the war in Georgia, where state television presented a version of events that aligned with the Kremlin's interests rather than objective reality.

7. The conflict between state power and independent media

"For as long as I live I will neither sing nor stand up to this music. This is not my anthem. It is the anthem of a different country—different not just in name but in substance."

The struggle for media independence continued throughout Putin's rule, with journalists and media outlets facing increasing pressure to conform to the Kremlin's narrative. Key aspects of this conflict included:

• The marginalization or silencing of critical voices in mainstream media
• The use of legal and economic pressure to control media ownership
• The rise of alternative platforms, particularly online, for independent journalism

Despite these challenges, some journalists and outlets continued to push back against state control, often at great personal risk. The assassination of investigative journalist Anna Politkovskaya in 2006 highlighted the dangers faced by those who challenged the official narrative.

8. Russia's resurgence and the role of propaganda in shaping national identity

"Dreams About Russia."

Putin's Russia sought to craft a new national narrative that emphasized strength, stability, and pride. This effort relied heavily on media propaganda to shape public opinion and foster a sense of renewed greatness. Key elements included:

• The revival of Soviet-era symbols and rhetoric, such as the restoration of the Soviet national anthem
• Grandiose spectacles like the Sochi Olympics opening ceremony, which presented an idealized version of Russian history and culture
• Aggressive media campaigns portraying Russia as a besieged fortress standing up to Western hostility

This propaganda effort was particularly effective in rallying public support for assertive foreign policy actions, such as the annexation of Crimea in 2014.

9. The evolution of Russian society and the middle class under Putin

"Russia needs consolidation."

Putin's rule saw significant changes in Russian society, particularly the growth of a urban middle class. This group, while initially supportive of Putin, became increasingly restless over time. Key developments included:

• The rise of a consumer culture fueled by oil wealth in the 2000s
• Growing frustration with corruption and lack of political freedoms
• The emergence of protest movements, particularly in 2011-2012

The Kremlin's response to these challenges involved a combination of economic incentives, nationalist appeals, and increased repression, highlighting the complex relationship between Russia's authoritarian system and its evolving society.

Last updated: January 25, 2025